IRRIGATION ENGINEERING

(2170609)
 INDEX

TOPIC
INTRODUCTION
CLASSIFICATION OF IRRIGATION CANAL
CANAL ALIGNMENT
LOOSES IN CANAL
TYPE OF CHANNELS
DESIGN OF NON-ALLUVIAL CHANNEL
DESIGN OF ALLUVIAL CHANNEL
CROSS-SECTION OF AN IRRIGATION CHANNEL
LINING OF IRRIGATION CHANNEL
CANAL :-

A canal is an artificial channel, generally trapezoidal in

shape, construction to carry water from a river or from a
reservoir for various purposes such as irrigation, Power
generation , navigation etc.

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Types of Canal :-

Irrigation Canal
Power Canal
Navigation Canal

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Narmada canal
Irrigation Canal :-

A canals which carries water from a

river or reservoir to the agricultural
fields for irrigation is called Irrigation
canal.
Ex- Ganga Canal
Bhakra canal
Narmada canal
Indira Gandhi Canal
Western Yamuna canal

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 Power Canal :-

A canal which carries water from the

source to a power house for the
generation of hydro electric power is
called power canal. It is also known as
Hydel Canal. Generally power
generation and irrigation are combined
Nangal dam on the same canal so that after the
generation of power water is used for
irrigation.
Ex- Nangal hydel canal

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Navigation canal :-

A canal which is constructed to

provide navigation facilities is called
navigation canal.

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 Classification of Canal :-

Irrigation
canal Based
on

Nature of Discharge &

Financial Canal
source of Relative Function
output Alignment
supply importance

1. Permanent 1. Feeder Canal 1. Productive

Canal 1. Contour
1. Main Canal 2. Carrier Canal Canal Canal
2. Inundation 2. Branch Canal 2. Protective
Canal 2. Watershed
Canal Canal
3. Major Distributary
4. Minor Distributary 3. Side slope
canal
5. Water Course

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Based on nature of source of supply :-

Permanent Canal
A canal is said to be permanent when it is fed by a permanent source
of supply. It is also known as Perennial Canal.

Inundation Canal

An inundation canal is one gets its supplies from the river, when water
level in the river, from which it take off, rises during floods.

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Based on Discharge & Relative
importance :-

Main Canal

Branch Canal

Major Distributary

Minor Distriutary

Water Course
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Canal Alignment :-

The location of the centre line of the canal on the ground is known as
canal alignment.
According to alignment the canals can be classified as:
1. Contour canal
2. Watershed canal
3. Side slope canal

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Contour Canal :-

A channel aligned nearly parallel to

the contours of the area is called a
contour canal.

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Watershed Canal
or Ridge Canal

A watershed canal is
aligned along a watershed
and runs for most of its
length on a watershed.
When the canal runs on a
watershed it can irrigate
areas on both sides and
hence a large area can be
brought under cultivation.

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Side slope
canal :-
A side slope canal is the
one which is aligned at right
angles to the contours of
the country. It can irrigate
areas only on one side.

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Losses in Canals :-
Water enters the main canal at the headworks and flows through the
branches, distributaries, water courses and finally reaches the field.
Throughout its journey, there are continuous water losses which have to be
accounted for the design of the channels.

Canals
17%
In canal system
Minors &
Distributaries
8%
Canal water
losses
In water course 20%

In the field 27%

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Losses in Canals :-
The losses in irrigation canals are mainly of the following types:

Evaporation losses

Absorption losses

Percolation losses

Transpiration losses

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Evaporation
losses :-
The evaporation loss is usually a
small percentage of the total loss
in unlined channel. It hardly
exceed 1 to 2% of the total water
entering into the canal.
The evaporation losses depends
upon:
Water surface area
Relative humidity
Wind velocity
Temperature
Water depth
Velocity of flow

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Types of channels :-

The hydraulic design of an irrigation

canals mainly governed by two factors:
1. Quantity of silt in the water
2. Type of boundaries surface of the
channel
Based on this, the irrigation channel may
be classified as:
1) Non-alluvial channels
2) Rigid boundary or Lined channels
3) Alluvial channels

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Design of Non-Alluvial channels :-

Non-alluvial channels are those which are excavated in non-alluvial soils

such as loam, clay, hard soil, moorum, boulder, etc.
Non-alluvial channels are designed on the basis of the maximum
permissible velocity that could be permitted in the channels without
causing any scour.

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Design procedure :-

For a channel design, Discharge(Q), Bed slope(S), Max. permissible

velocity(V), Mannings coefficient(N) and side slope(n:1) are chosen or
given.
Step-1 : Determine the area of the c/s from the continuity equation :
=
= / (1)
Step-2 : Determine hydraulic mean radius from the Mannings formula.
3
2 1
1
V=
3 2 = 1
2
........(2)

2
 Step-3 : Determine wetted perimeter(P) from the relation,

= = (3)

Step-4 : Determine the depth(d) & bed width(b) from the values of A and P.
= + 2 (4)
= + 2 1 + 2 (5)

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Design of alluvial channels :-
Alluvial channels are those which are excavated in alluvial soils such as silt
and which carry a lot of silt with water. The boundary or the perimeter of
such a channel is therefore known as alluvium.
The silt content may increase if the velocity of flow is such that it scours the
bed and sides of the canal. (if the velocity of the flow is high the scouring
will occur, but when velocity is low, silting occurs).
Which results in modifying the cross section of the canal.
If the bed and sides are scoured, the cross section increases and the F.S.L.
falls, which results in decrease in command.
Such channels shall be designed for a non-scouring and a non-silting
velocity, called the critical velocity.

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 Several investigators have studied the problem and suggested various
theories, which are known as silt theories.
The two silt theories are commonly used for the design of canals in alluvial
soils are :
1. Kennedys silt theory
2. Laceys silt theory

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Kennedys silt theory :-
R.G. Kennedy carried out pioneer research work for the design of stable
channels in Punjab.
The sites selected by him did not require any silt clearance for more than 30
years and were thus supposed to be flowing with non-silting non-scouring
velocity.
On the basis of these observation, Kennedy arrived at the following
conclusions:
1) The silt supporting power is proportional to the bed width of the stream
and not to its wetted perimeter.
2) Kennedy also defined critical velocity as non-silting non-scouring velocity
and gave a relation between critical velocity to the depth of flowing
water.

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 The relation is;
0 = 0.55 0.64
where,
Vo = critical velocity (m/sec)
D = depth of water over bed of a channel
Kennedy later realized the importance of silt grade on critical velocity and
introduced a factor m known as critical velocity ratio (C.V.R.) in his
equation and is written as,
0 = 0.55 0.64
where;
m = C.V.R. = V/Vo
Kennedy made use of Kutters equation for finding the mean velocity (V) of
the flow in the channel.

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 Kutters equation :-
1 0.00155
23++
=
0.00155
1+ 23+

Where,
V = mean velocity of flow
S = Canal bed slope
N = rugosity coefficient
R = Hydraulic mean depth
The value of N in Kutters equation depends upon the type of surface at
the bed and sides of the channel as well as on the condition of the
channel.

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 Buckley has recommended the values of Kutters N for alluvial channels in
North India, depending upon the condition of the channel, as given in
table below :-

Rugosity Coefficient (N)

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Design of channels by Kennedys theory :-
The design procedure will depend whether the bed slope S is given or B/D
ratio is given.

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(a) Design procedure when the bed
slope (S) is given :-
Given : Q, N, m and S
Step-1 : Assume a trial value of the depth of D in meter.
Step-2 : Calculate the velocity, V from the equation;
0 = 0.55 0.64
Step-3 : Cross- sectional area A is obtained from,
=
Step-4 : Assuming the side slopes of the channel as 0.5:1 (H:V). The bed
width B is determined from the relation;
2
= +
2

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 Step-5 : Calculate perimeter P and hydraulic mean radius R from the
following relations;

= + 5
2
+ 2
= =
+ 5
Step-6 : Calculate the actual mean velocity of flow (V) from Kutters
equation .
If the value of V obtained from Kutters equation is nearly the same as
that found in step 2, the assumed depth is correct.
If not, assume another trial value of D and repeat the calculations till
the two values of the velocities determined in step 6 and step 2 are nearly
the same.

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(b) Design procedure when B/D ratio is
given:-
Given : Q, N, m and B/D ratio
Step-1 : Calculate A in terms of D as indicated below

Let, =x

B = Dx
2
Since = + , = 2 + 0.5
2

Step-2 : Write the continuity equation

Q=A*V
.
Thus, = 2 ( + 0.5) 0.550 64
find D from this equation

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 Step-3 : Knowing D, calculate B and R from the following relations;
+ 2 2
=
+ 5

Step-4 : Calculate the velocity V from Kennedys equation

0 = 0.55 0.64

Step-5 : Knowing V, R and N, determine the bed slope (S) from Kutters
equation by trial and error. Neglect term 0.00155/S in the first trial.

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Drawbacks in Kennedys theory :-
1. Did not considered the B/D ratio.
2. Kutters equation is used for determining the mean velocity of flow and
hence the limitations of Kutters equation are incorporated in Kennedys
theory .
3. Did not gave any equation for the bed slope (S). By varying S, a no. of
designs can be obtained. Kennedy did not mentioned which is the most
efficient design.
4. Silt grade and silt charge were not defined.
5. This theory is aimed to design only an average regime channel.
6. The value of m is decided arbitrarily since there is no method given for
determining its value.
7. The design of the channel by the Kennedys theory require tedious trial
and error procedure.
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Laceys Regime theory :-
Gerald Lacey a retired chief
engineer from irrigation
department, U.P. in 1945 carried
out a detailed study on the
problem of designing stable
channels in alluvial and made a
significant contribution in this
subject.
Gerald Lacey developed the
regime theory and evolved a
number of equations on the basis
of his own observations. His
equations have been widely
accepted.

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Regime channel :-

The regime channel may be defined as a stable channel whose

width, depth and bed slope have undergone modifications by
silting and scouring and are so adjusted that they have attained
equilibrium.

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Regime Conditions :-
A channel is said to be in regime when the following conditions are fully
satisfied :-
1. The channel is flowing in unlimited incoherent alluvium of the same
character as that transported.
2. Silt grade and Silt charge are constant.
3. Discharge is constant.
If the above three conditions are fully satisfied, then the channel is
said to be in true regime.

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 Incoherent alluvium :-
It is a soil composed of loose granular material which can be scoured
with the same ease with which it is deposited. It does not have any cohesion
and is an alluvial soil deposited by rivers.

Regime Silt charge :-

It is the minimum transported load consistent with fully active bed.

Regime Silt grade :-

This indicates the gradation between the small and the big particles.

Initial Regime :-
It is the first stage attained by an artificial channel. It is the state of
channel that has formed its section yet not secured the longitudinal slope.

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 Final Regime :-
It is the ultimate stage of regime attained by a channel when in
addition to bed slope and depth, the width of the channel has also been
adjusted. After a long time, because of continuous action of water, the
resistance of the sides of the channel is overcome. Ultimately, a condition is
attained when the channel adjust its bed slope, depth and width , and more
or less a permanent stability is achieved, which is known as Final Regime.

Permanent Regime :-
When a channel surface is protected by any protecting hard
material, such as lining on the bed and sides, the section can not be scoured
up. Hence there is no possibility of change of section or bed slope of the
channel. Such a channel is said to be in permanent regime.

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Cross-section of Regime channel :-

For a channel to carry a given discharge

with a given silt charge and silt grade,
there is only one cross-section and one
bed slope when true regime is achieved.
Lacey, however, postulated that a true
regime channel has semi-elliptical
section. For a coarser silt the channel is
wide and shallow, while for a finer silt
the channel is narrow and deep.

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Laceys Regime equations :-
Lacey indicated that the silt carried by flowing water is kept in suspension by the
vertical component of eddies but according to him these eddies are generated
from the bed as well as sides of the channel in the direction normal to the
surface of generation. For this reason, Lacey considered hydraulic mean radius
(R) as a more pertinent variable rather than depth of flow (D) as considered by
Kennedy.
Further, Lacey introduced a silt factor (f) as a measure of silt grade. He
considered the value of f as utility for the channels of Upper Bari Doab canal
system.

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 Lacey obtain the following relationship between the mean velocity (V) and
the hydraulic radius (R).
2
=
5

where, V = mean velocity(m/s)

f = silt factor
R = hydraulic mean radius (m)

For determining the channel dimensions, Lacey gave the following

relationship between the cross-sectional area (A) in (m2) and the mean
velocity (V).
2 = 140 5
where, A = c/s area in m2

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 According to Lacey, the silt factor (f) depends upon the average size of
particles of the boundary material in the channel. Lacey gave the following
equation for the silt factor.
= 1.76
where, = mean particle size in mm
= d50 size in mm.

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Some equations use in Lacey's Theory :-
V-Q-f Relation :
1
2
6
=
140

where; Q= discharge in cumec

P-Q Relation :

= 4.75

Regime flow equation :

2 1
= 10.8 3 3

where, S = bed slope

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 Regime scour depth equation :
1
3
= 0.47

where, R= hydraulic mean radius

S-f-R relation :
2
0.00023
= 1
2
S-f-Q relation :
5
3
= 1
33406
S-f-q relation :
5
0.0001783
= 1
3

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Design of channels by Laceys theory :-
Step-1 :- Calculate the silt factor (f)
= 1.76
where, = mean particle size in mm
Step-2 :- Calculate velocity (V)
1
2
6
=
140
Step-3 :- Calculate area from equation
A = Q/V
Step-4 :- Calculate perimeter(P)

= 4.75

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 Step-5 :- knowing A & P & assuming side slopes of the channel as 0.5:1
(H:V), determine bed width B & depth D from the following
relations.
2
= +
2

= + 5
Step-6 :- Calculate hydraulic mean radius

=

5 2
also calculate, =
2

Both the values of R should be the same, this will provide a numerical check
from steps 1 to 5.
Step-7 :- Calculate bed slope S from the relation;
5
3
= 1
33406

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Comparison b/w Kennedys & Laceys theories :-
Kennedys Theory Laceys Theory
Kennedy introduced the critical Lacey introduced silt factor (f) to
velocity ratio (m) to account for the account for the silt grade and gave
silt grade but did not give any relation b/w f and mr.
method to determine the value of = 1.76
m.

Kennedy recommended the use of Lacey gave his own equation for
Kutters equation for determining determining the mean velocity of
the mean velocity of flow. flow.
2
=
5

Kennedy didnt give any equation Lacey gave an equation for the
for the bed slope of the channel. It bed slope of the channel.
is decided on basis of available 5
3
ground slope. = 1
33406
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 Kennedys Theory
Kennedy assumed that all channels
will be stable and in regime when
there is neither silting nor scouring.
Kennedy made no distinction
between the frictional resistance
and shock resistance.
The design of channel by
Kennedys method involves trial
and error procedure.
Laceys Theory
Lacey indicated that a true regime
channel has a semi-elliptical shape.
Lacey made distinction b/w the
frictional resistance which depends
on the nature of the material in the
boundary surface and shock
resistance which depends on
irregularities of the channel.
The design of a channel by Laceys
method does not involve any trial
and error procedure.
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Drawbacks in Laceys theory :-
The true regime conditions defined by Lacey are hypothetical and may not
be achieved in actual practice.

Lacey didnt consider the silt charge. He considered only the silt grade.

Lacey didnt take into account the increase in silt concentration due to loss
of water in evaporation and seepage.

Most od equations involve the silt factor (f). The derivations of the various
equation by considering a single factor (silt factor) is not satisfactory.

Silt grade and silt charge have not been properly defined by Lacey.

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 Strictly speaking, an artificial channel is not a regime channel and the
regime theory is not applicable.

Lacey indicated that a true regime channel has a semi-elliptical shape, but
didnt give any equation for this shape.

Laceys defined the regime silt charge as the minimum bed load
consistent with fully active bed, which is not properly defined.

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Balancing Depth :-
Usually a channel section is partly in cutting & partly in filling so that the
material excavated may be used for making the banks. Thus, the earthwork
is paid for only once. On the other hand, for the channel section entirely in
cutting, the extra soil has to be deposited in spoil banks.
If for a channel section the depth of cutting is such that the quantity of
excavation or cutting is equal to the earth filling required for making the
banks, then this depth of cutting is known as balancing depth or the most
economical depth of cutting.

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 Let,
h = height of bank above the channel bed
D = fully supply depth of channel
B = bed width of channel
y = balancing depth
t = top width of the bank
n : 1 be the side slope of the channel in filling
z : 1 be the side slope of the channel in cutting
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 Thus,
Area of cutting = +
Area of filling = 2 [ + ( )] ( )
Equating the area of cutting & filling,
(B + zy) y = 2 [t + n (h-y)] (h-y)
By + zy2 = 2th 2ty + 2n (h-y) 2
By + zy2 = 2th 2ty + 2n (h2 2hy + y2)
y2 (2n-z) (B + 4nh +2t) y + h (2t + 2nh) = 0
A channel is usually constructed with a side slope of 1 : 1
in cutting and 1.5 : 1 in filling.
z = 1.0 , n = 1.5
Substituting in above equation,
2y2 (B + 6h + 2t) y + h (2t + 3h) = 0
From this equation, balancing depth y may be obtained.

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Use of Garrets diagram for channel
design:-
Garrets diagrams provide a graphical solution for the design of channels
by Kennedy's theory. In these diagrams discharge is plotted on the
abscissa, bed slope is plotted on the left ordinate and the depth and
critical velocity are plotted on the right ordinate.
The discharge curves are shown by firm lines while the bed width curves are
shown by dotted lines.

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Steps for design of channel by Garrets
diagram:-
Find out the discharge for which the channel is to be designed. This can be
found from schedule of area statics.
Find out the bed slope of channel from the L-section.
Follow the discharge curve corresponding to the design discharge found in
step (1) & obtain the point of intersection P of this discharge curve & a
horizontal line drawn corresponding to the bed slope.
Draw the vertical line through the point of intersection P. This line will
intersect several bed width curves. A horizontal line drawn through each
point of intersection of vertical line and bed width curves gives a depth
and critical velocity Vo corresponding to this depth on the right ordinate.
Choose a pair of bed width, depth and Vo corresponding to a point of
intersection obtained in step (4).

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 Calculate the area of channel section A corresponding to bed width and
depth obtained as above.
Calculate velocity V in the channel corresponding to the area A of the
channel section obtained in step (6).
Calculate the critical velocity ratio (V/Vo). If this is equal to unity or equal to
the given for the channel design, the bed width (B) and depth (D)
obtained in step (5) may be adopted. If not repeat the procedure with
other pairs of bed width and depth till the value of (V/Vo) obtained is equal
to unity or equal to the value given for channel design.
It may be noted that Garrets diagrams are applicable only for channels
having side slopes 0.5 : 1 (H : V).

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Cross Section of an Irrigation Channel :-

An irrigation channel section may

e either
1. In cutting
2. In filling
3. In partial cutting and filling

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The main components of the canal cross-
section are:
1. Side slopes
2. Berm
3. Free board
4. Banks
5. Dowla
6. Inspection road
7. Borrow pit
8. Spoil bank
9. Land width
10. Counter berm

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Lining of irrigation :-

Canal lining:
To reduce the percolation losses the bed and the sides of the canal
are provided with an impervious layer of cement concrete, which is known as
Canal lining. Such canals are called lined canals.
Values of the transmission losses are as follow:
Main canal and branch canal=17%
Distributaries=8%
Water courses=20%

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Necessity of lining :-
1. To minimize the seepage losses through the canal.
2. To prevent erosion of bed and side of canal.
3. To increase discharge in canal by increasing the velocity.
4. Prevention of water logging in the area adjacent to the canal.
5. To retard the growth of weeds.
6. To reduce maintenance of canal.
7. Elimination of silting in the canal.

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Advantages of lining :-
1. Prevention of loss of water
2. Prevention of water logging
3. Smooth surface
4. Reduction in evaporation looses
5. Low maintenance cost
6. Reduction in evaporation
7. No scouring
8. No silting
9. Narrow cross- section
10. Stable banks
11. Better operation
12. Less salt problem
13. Economical water distribution
14. Less breaches NEXT
Disadvantages of lining

1. High initial cost

2. Difficult to repair
3. Difficult to shift the outlet
4. Less additional safety

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Requirements of good lining material :-
1. Economy
2. Water tightness
3. Strength
4. Durability
5. Repairability
6. Resistance to abrasion
7. Hydraulic efficiency

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 Types of lining

Exposed and Buried

hard surface Membrane Earth linings
linings linings

1.1. Cement concrete

lining 1. sprayed in place 1. Thin compacted earth
asphalt membrane lining lining
2. Precast concrete lining
2. Prefabricated asphalt 2. Thick compacted earth
3. Shotcrete lining membrane lining lining
4. Cement mortar lining 3. Polythene film and 3. Loosely placed earth
5. Lime concrete lining synthetic rubber lining
membrane lining
6. Brick tile lining 4. Stabilized soil lining
4. Bentonite and clay
7. Stone block or membrane lining 5. Bentonite soil lining
undressed stone lining
5. Road oil lining 6. Soil-cement lining
8. Asphalt concrete lining
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Design of lined canal
In the design of lined canals two types of sections are adopted.
1. Triangular section with circular bottom
2. Trapezoidal section with rounded corners

1. Triangular section with circular bottom:

Triangular section with circular bottom is adopted for smaller channels
and when discharge is less than 85 cumec assuming the limiting velocit as
1.8m/s.
2. Trapezoidal section with rounded corners:
Trapezoidal section with rounded corners is adopted for large
channels and when discharge is greater than 85 cumec .

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Drainage behind lining
The thickness of canal lining is very small and hence the lining can not
withstand any pressure from the back of the lining.
The water pressure or hydrostatic pressure may be caused by seeping rain
water in the backfill.
So it is necessary to relieve this hydrostatic pressure by the provision of
drainage and pressure release arrangements.
Most effective and economical methods for providing drainage behind
lining are:
1. Pressure relief valves
2. weep holes
3. Longitudinal and transverse drains
4. Hump

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