Body Systems &

Disease States 2
BIOL25441

THE
LYMPHATIC
SYSTEM &
IMMUNITY
 Objectives
Describe the general functions of the lymphatic system.
Identify the major lymphatic pathway
Describe the formation and function of lymph
Explain lymph circulation
Describe lymph nodes and their functions.
Describe the location and function of spleen and thymus gland
Differentiate between innate and adaptive immunity
List innate mechanisms
Describe the activation and function of lymphocytes
Describe different types of immunoglobulin
Differentiate between 1ry and 2ry immune response.
Differentiate between the active and passive immunity
Describe allergic reaction, tissue rejection, and autoimmunity.
 Functions of Lymphatic System

Transport Fluids Absorb Fats & Fat

Immune
from interstitial soluble vitamins
Response
spcae (via Lacteals)

Maintains Macrophages
pressure and fluid
volume Lymphocytes
http://www.unm.edu/~jimmy/lymph_notes.htm
Lymphatic Circulation
 Lymphatic Pathway
Lymphatic capillaries
These are tiny, closed-
ended tubes that extend
into interstitial spaces.
They have single-celled
walls that allow tissue
fluids to enter the lymph.
The fluid inside lymphatic
capillaries is called
Lymph
 Lymphatic Pathway
Lymphatic vessels:
The walls of lymphatic vessels are thinner than those
of veins but are constructed with the same three
layers with semilunar valves on the inside.
Larger lymphatic vessels lead to specialized organs
called lymph nodes.
After leaving the nodes, the vessels merge to form
lymphatic trunks pour lymph in the venous
system.
Lymphatic Pathway
The Lymphatic Pathway
Lymphatic Capillary

Lymphatic Vessel

Lymph Node

Lymphatic Vessel

Lymphatic Trunk

Collecting Duct

Subclavian Vein
 Lymphatic Pathway
Tissue fluid and lymph:
Lymph is tissue fluid that entered a lymphatic
capillary
What drives lymph formation?

Where does the tissue fluid come from?

 Lymphatic Pathway
Tissue fluid and lymph:
Where does the tissue fluids come from?

What keeps this fluid in the blood?

What if there is damage to the lymphatic vessels or

lymph nodes?
 Lymphatic Pathway

Formation of tissue fluid > reabsorption

1
Formation of Lymph

Increased tissue fluid

2

Tissue fluids produce hydrostatic pressure in

3 interstitial space

Excess tissue fluid pushed into lymphatic

4 capillary

Lymph is formed
5
 Lymphatic Pathway
Tissue fluid and lymph:
What factors influence the movement of lymph?
The lymph is present at low pressure in the lymph vessels.
Like the venous blood, the lymph moves under the
influence of:
Skeletal muscle contractions
Respiration
Contractions of smooth muscles of lymph trunks
 Lymphatic Pathway
Lymph Nodes:
Lymph nodes are located along the path of
lymphatic vessels.

Where are lymph nodes NOT found?

They contain lymphocytes and macrophages that

help destroy foreign substances
http://www.peteducation.com/images/articles/no_ill_lymphstructure.jpg
 Lymphatic Pathway
Structure of a Lymph Node
Lymph nodules are the functioning unit of the
lymphatic nodes. These contain both lymphocytes and
macrophages which clean the lymph as it flows
through the node.
Lymph sinuses provide a complex network of
chambers and channels through which the lymph
circulates. Macrophages are concentrated in lymph
sinuses.
Lymphatic Pathway
 Lymphatic Pathway
Locations of lymph nodes: distributed through out
the body but not in CNS.
Functions of lymph nodes:
The macrophages and lymphocytes within lymph
nodes filter lymph and remove bacteria and
cellular debris before lymph is returned to the
blood.
Lymph nodes are also centers of lymphocyte
production; these cells function in monitoring body
fluids.
 Thymus and Spleen
The functions of the thymus and spleen are similar to
those of lymph nodes.
Thymus gland
The thymus is a soft, bi-lobed organ located behind the
sternum; it shrinks in size during the lifetime (large
in children, microscopic in the elderly).
The thymus is surrounded by a connective tissue
capsule that extends inside it and divides it into
lobules.
 Thymus and Spleen
Thymus gland
Lobules contain lymphocytes (thymocytes) in inactive
form. Some lymphocytes mature into T lymphocytes (T
cells) that leave the thymus to provide immunity.
The epithelium cells of the thymus secretes the
hormone thymosin, which influences the maturation of
T lymphocytes once they leave the thymus.
Thymus and Spleen
 Thymus and Spleen
Spleen
The spleen lies in the upper left abdominal cavity
and is the bodys largest lymphatic organ.
The spleen resembles a large lymph node and
subdivided into lobules except that it contains
blood instead of lymph.
 Thymus and Spleen
Spleen
The tissues within the splenic lobules are of 2 types:
White pulp: distributed through out the spleen and
contains lymphocytes.
Red pulp: contains numerous RBCs and many
lymphocytes and macrophages.
Blood capillaries in the red pulp are quite permeable
and RBC can squeeze through the pores. The older
more fragile RBCs may rupture and removed by
phagocytes.
Thymus and Spleen
THE IMMUNE SYSTEM
Class #6
 The Immune System
INNATE
Non-specific
1st Line
Always ready to act (FAST)
Anatomical features that
function as barriers to
infection
Both cellular and humoral
components
Not antigen-specific
ADAPTIVE
Specific
2nd Line
Requires time to react (SLOW
at first, FAST second time)
No anatomical barriers
Both cellular and humoral
components
Antigen-specific, has
immunological memory
 Body defenses against infection
Diseases-causing agents, also called pathogens, can
produce infections within the body.
The body has two lines of defense against pathogens:
Innate (nonspecific) defenses: that guard against any
pathogen. It is carried by lymphocytes and recognize a
specific invader. It responds quickly.
Adaptive (Specific) defenses (also known as immunity):
Responses against a very specific target. It is slower to
respond.
Nonspecific and specific defenses work together to protect
the body against infection.
Body defenses against infection
Species
resistance
Mechanical
Fever barriers

Innate

Phagocytosis Natural
killer cell

Inflammation
 Body defenses against infection
Levels of immunity

First Line defenses

Mechanical barriers

Second line defenses

Rest of innate mechanisms

Third line defenses

Specific immunity
 Innate Immunity
Species resistance: Each species has diseases unique to it
that do not affect other species. Ex. Measles, mumps,
and gonorrhea.
Mechanical barrier: ex. Skin, mucous membranes, tears,
mucous, sweat.
Chemical barriers: Ex. Stomach acid and pepsin enzyme.
Lysozyme in tears, salt on skin, and interferon
Fever: Make environment unfavorable, reduce iron and
nutrients, and phagocytes attack with vigor.
 Innate Immunity
Inflammation: Tissue response to infection and
inflammation
Dilation of blood vessels redness and edema
Increased tissue permeability edema and invasion
of white blood cells into the affected area
Pain due to irritation of local nerves
Heat because of the blood flow from deeper tissue
activates phagocytosis
Appearance of fibroblasts and their production of a sac
around the area (to minimize spread of infection)
 Innate Immunity

Natural Killer Cells (NK):

Distinctive lymphocytes
Produce cytolytic substance called perforins and chemicals
to induce inflammation.

Natural Killer cell attacking Cancer Cell

 Innate Immunity
Phagocytosis: the effect include
The most active phagocytes are neutrophils
( which engulf smaller particle) and
monocytes (which engulf larger particles).
Neutrophils and monocytes leave the
bloodstream at areas of injury by
diapedesis (under the effect of chemotactic
factors).
Monocytes give rise to macrophages, which
become fixed in various tissues.
Phagocytosis also removes foreign
particles from the lymph.
 Level 1: Prevention and removal
(passive, not specific)
Our first defense is to prevent the survival and entry of pathogenic bacteria on and
inside our body. Since the outside of our body is most likely to get in contact with
bacteria, that is where this defense is operative (mechanical and chemical).
Exposed surfaces - in contact with the environment
such as eyes, mouth, lungs, intestines
covered by mucus
protected by constant removal of bacteria
Examples:
Tears, contain ant-bacterial substances (lysozymes, phospholipases)
Saliva, removes bacteria from mouth when swallowed
Minute hairs on inside linings of ears and airways remove dust particles and
bacteria trapped in mucus
Urinary tract flushed each time we urinate.
Stomach acid kills most ingested germs and presence of 'healthy' bacteria in
intestines protects against pathogenic bacteria.
Skin gives perfect protection when intact as no bacteria can penetrate and sweat
increases salt concentration to levels that most bacteria find hostile
 Level 2: Non-specific killing of bacteria.
If level 1 defense (mechanical barriers) is not enough the body has
developed a non-specific, ever active, lethal weapon for those bacteria
(and viruses as well), that succeed in entering sites where they can
cause harm.

The weapon: COMPLEMENT

found in blood and other bodily fluids
kills most bacteria when it comes into action.

The process:
certain white blood cells inspect our body constantly to scavenge for
unwelcome guests, which are eaten alive when discovered. These
defenses comprise the innate immune system.
 Level 3: Acquired immunity
If invaders break through defense levels 1 and 2 the body raises the
temperature to slow down bacterial growth and the body brings into action the
reserve troops of our defense system.

It needs time to recruit the best we have, but after 2 weeks, specific antibodies
are produced, which recognize exactly those bacteria that cause the infection,
and with the help of white blood cells they are destroyed.

It is this level 3 defense system, called acquired immunity, which allows many
bacteria to make us ill only once in life.
Bacteria do not get a second chance because by that time response time is
reduced to nearly zero: immunological memory

Clinical Application: vaccination

Since antibodies are highly specific, we need a different vaccine for each
bacterial infection that we want to become immune to.
 Cells of the Immune System

http://pathmicro.med.sc.edu/ghaffar/immunecells.gif
 CELLS OF IMMUNE SYSTEM
All originate in bone marrow
Two types:
Myeloid (neutrophils, basophils, eosinpophils,
macrophages and dendritic cells) and
Lymphoid (B lymphocyte, T lymphocyte and Natural
Killer) cells
The myeloid progenitor (stem) cell in the bone marrow
gives rise to erythrocytes, platelets, neutrophils,
monocytes/macrophages and dendritic cells
lymphoid progenitor (stem) cell gives rise to the NK, T
cells and B cells.
 CELLS OF IMMUNE SYSTEM
T cell development:
Precursor T cells must migrate to the thymus

In thumus, precursors undergo differentiation into two

distinct types of T cells

CD4+ T helper cell (TH1 cells, TH2 cells)

CD8+ pre-cytotoxic T cell

TH1 cells: help the CD8+ pre-cytotoxic cells to differentiate

into cytotoxic T cells

TH2 cells: help B cells differentiate into plasma cells, which

secrete antibodies.
 Specific Immunity
Carried out by
lymphocytes and
macrophages

Mechanism involves the

formation of antibodies
that recognize and bind to
specific foreign antigens
and elicit the immune
response.
 Specific Immunity
Antigen:
Before birth, the body makes an inventory of self
proteins and other large molecules.
Antigens are generally larger molecules that elicit an
immune response.
Sometimes small molecules called haptens combine
with larger molecules and become antigenic.
 Specific Immunity
Lymphocytes origin :
During fetal development, red bone marrow releases
lymphocyte precursors into circulation,
the precursor will differentiate in the thymus gland and
become T lymphocytes (T cells)
the remainder of lymphocyte precursor will differentiate
in the bone marrow and become B lymphocytes (B cells).
Both B and T cells reside in lymphatic organs (mainly
spleen and lymph nodes) bone marrow and intestinal
lining.
 Specific Immunity
Lymphocytes Functions :
T cells attack foreign, antigen-bearing cells, such as
bacteria, by direct cell-to-cell contact, providing cell-
mediated immunity.
Body fluids attack and destroy specific antigens or
antigen-bearing particles through antibody-mediated
immunity also called humoral immune response.
(antibodies produced by B-cells)
 Specific Immunity
Lymphocytes Functions :
See appendix # 1
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t=swf::800::600::/sites/dl/free/0072965630/512871/the_immu
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 Specific Immunity
Types of Antibodies:
There are five major types of antibodies
(immunoglobulins) that constitute the gamma
globulin fraction of the plasma.
See next slide
 Specific Immunity
Types of Antibodies:
IgG is in tissue fluid and plasma and defends against bacterial
cells, viruses, and toxins and activates complement.
IgA is in exocrine gland secretions (breast milk, saliva, tears) and
defends against bacteria and viruses.
IgM is found in plasma and reacts with blood cells during
transfusions.
IgD is found on the surface of most B lymphocytes and functions
in B cell activation.
IgE is found in exocrine gland secretions and promotes allergic
reactions
 Specific Immunity
Actions of Antibodies:
Directly attack and precipitate or agglutinate the
foreign substance easily phagocytized.
Cover and neutralize the foreign substance.
Complement activation leads to:
Coat antigen-antibody complex (opsonization) enhance
phagocytosis
Attract macrophage and neutrophils into the region
Rupture membrane of foreign cells
Alter structure of virus harmless
 Specific Immunity
The immune response:
Primary immune response:
When B or T cells become activated the first time,
They produce a slower action AND
Form memory cells that responds quickly to
subsequent exposure.

Secondary immune response

If the same antigen is encountered again,
Memory cells will produce a more rapid response,
known as the secondary immune response.
The ability to produce a secondary immune
response may be long-lasting.
 Active Vs Passive Immunity
As described, after the adaptive defense mechanism
takes place, the body gains immunity against the
pathogen by forming antibodies (immunoglobulin).
Antibodies will attack the pathogen upon subsequent
exposures and they live for long time. Thus, adaptive
immunity is also known as acquired immunity
Acquired immunity can be natural or artificial, and
passive or active
CLINICAL LINKS
 Allergic Reaction
Allergic reaction is an excessive immune response to
harmless substances.
It differ from immune reaction in 3 things:
Caused by exposure to allergens (rather than
antigen)
The allergen is a harmless substance
It may cause tissue damage.
Allergic reaction can be
Delayed.
Immediate
 Allergic Reaction
Delayed allergic reactions:
A delayed-reaction allergy results from
repeated exposure to substances that cause
inflammatory reactions in the skin.
 Allergic Reaction
Immediate allergic reactions:
The first exposure to the allergen leads to over
production of IgE.
IgE binds to the surface of mast cells which is
widely distributed in the body.
Upon subsequent exposure, the binding of the
allergen to IgE leads to degranulation of the
mast cells and the release of inflammatory
mediators; histamine, PGs, and leukotriene.
 Allergic Reaction
Immediate allergic reactions:
Histamine is the major mediator. Its effect
includes:
Capillary dilatation BP, redness (more blood
flow).
capillary permeability edema, and hives.
Contracts smooth muscles bronchoconstriction.
Irritate nerve endings rash
Heart rate.

In rare case, the reaction can be life threatening

(anaphylactic shock)
 Tissue rejection Reaction
A transplant recipients immune system may react
with foreign antigens on the surface of the
transplanted tissue, causing a tissue rejection
reaction.
Close matching of donor and recipient tissues can
reduce the chances of tissue rejection.
The use of immunosuppressive drugs may reduce
rejection, although the individual may be more
susceptible to infection.
 Autoimmunity
In autoimmune disorders, the immune system
manufactures antibodies against some of its own
antigens.
Autoimmune disorders may result from viral
infection, faulty T cell development, or reaction to a
nonself antigen that bears close resemblance to a self
antigen.