Open System Interconnection, is a network model developed by ISO

where peer-to-peer communications are divided into seven layers.

Each layer performs a specific task and builds upon the preceding
layer until the communications are complete.

The OSI model breaks down the problems involved in moving data
from one computer to another computer. Open Systems Interconnection
model categorizes these hundreds of problems to Seven Layers. A layer in
Open Systems Interconnection model is a portion that is used to categorize
specific problems.

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 The physical layer is the lowest layer. It deals with the physical
characteristics of the transmission medium. The physical layer defines the
means of transmitting raw bits rather than logical data packets over a
physical link connecting network nodes.

The physical layer consists of the basic networking hardware

transmission technologies of a network.

It defines the electrical, mechanical and functional specifications for

activating, maintaining, and deactivating the physical link between end
systems.

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 Converts bits into electronic signals for outgoing messages

Converts electronic signals into bits for incoming messages

This layer manages the interface between the the computer and the network
medium.

Services
Bit-by-bit or symbol-by-symbol delivery
Modulation
Line coding
Bit synchronization
Circuit switching
Multiplexing

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 The data link layer or layer 2 is the second layer of the seven-layer
OSI model of computer networking. This layer is the protocol layer that
transfers data between adjacent network nodes in a wide area network or
between nodes on the same local area network segment. Handles special
data frames between the network layer and the physical layer.

The data link layer provides the transfer of data between network
entities. It detect and possibly correct errors that may occur in the physical
layer.
At the receiving end, this layer packages raw data from the physical
layer into data frames for delivery to the network layer.

At the sending end this layer handles conversion of data into raw
formats that can be handled by the physical layer

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 The data link layer provides access to the networking media and it
enables the data to locate its intended destination on a network.

It provides reliable transit of data across a physical link by using the

Media Access Control (MAC) addresses.

Services
Encapsulation
Frame synchronization
Logical link control (Error & Flow control)

Examples : Ethernet, Frame Relay

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 The network layer is responsible for packet forwarding including
routing through intermediate routers, since it knows the address of
neighbouring network nodes, and it also manages quality of service , and
forwards local host domain messages to the Transport layer.

The main tasks of the network layer is one of providing cross-

network addresses, the routing and the construction and updating of
routing tables and the fragmentation of data packets.

It defines end-to-end delivery of packets. Through this logical

addressing is defined so that any endpoint can be identified.

It also defines how routing works and how routes are learned so
that the packets can be delivered.

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 Handles addressing messages for delivery.

Responsible for deciding how to route transmissions between

computers.

This layer also handles the decisions needed to get data from one point
to the next point along a network path .

Functions
Connection model
Host addressing
Message forwarding

Examples : Routers , IP address

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 The transport layer regulates information flow to ensure the
processto- process delivery between host applications reliably and
accurately.

The transport layer segments data from the sending host's system
and reassembles the data into a data stream on the receiving host's system.

Transport Layer protocols include TCP (Transmission Control

Protocol) and UDP (User Datagram Protocol).

TCP is used for connection-oriented transmissions whereas User

Datagram Protocol (UDP) is used for simpler messaging transmissions.

The tasks of the transport include the segmentation of the data

stream and in relieving congestion.
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 Within the service layering semantics of the OSI network
architecture, the session layer responds to service requests from the
presentation layer and issues service requests to the transport layer.

Services
Authentication
Authorization
Session restoration

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