Fluid Mechanics

Lectuer:Sun Gang
 Introduction
1-2 Definition of a Fluid
The solid object will no change
inside the a closed container
The liquid will change its shape
to conform to that of the contai
ner and will take on the same b
oundaries as the container up to
the maximum depth of the liqui
d increase with the time
Fluid mechanics:the behavior of
fluids at rest and in motion
A fluid is a substance that deforms
continuously under the application
of a shear(tangential) stress no
matter how small the shear stress
may be
A solid deforms when a shear stress
is applied does not continue to
F/A
Dye maker to outline a fluid
element
 Introduction
The deformation of solid
Experience a Deformation

Finite(solid)

Continuously increasing
Shear stress is proportional
To the rate of change of
The deformation
At the atomic and molecular level:
Solid:the molecular are packed so closely together that their
nuclei and electrons form a rigid geometric
structure,gluedtogether by powerful intermolecular forces.
Liquid:the space between molecular is large,the intermolecular
forces allow enough movement of the molecules to give the
liquid its fluidity
Gas:the spacing between molecular is much larger, the
influence of the intermolecular forces is much weaker,and the
motion of the molecules occurs rather freely throughout the
gas
 Introduction
1-4 Basic Equation The Basic laws governing the flow moti
The ideal gas equation of state on include:
1 The conservation of mass
p RT (1.1) 2 Newtons second law of moti
on
3 The principle of angular momentu
m
4 The first law of theromdynamics
5 The second law of theromdynamics
 Introduction
1-5 Methods of analysis The system that you are
attempting to analyze
Basic mechanics : free-body
diagram
thermodynamics: closed
system(terms: system and
control volume)
 1-5.1 System and Control Volume

A system is defined as a fixed, identifiable quantity of mass; the syste

m boundaries separate the system from the surroundings(fixed or mov
able), no mass crosses the system boundaries.
A control volume is an arbitrary volume in space through which fluid f
lows. The geometric boundary of the comtrol volume is called the cont
rol surface.(include real or imaginary)
 1-5.2 Differential versus Integral Approach

The basic laws can be formulated in terms of infinitesimal or finite

systems and control volumes.
The first case the resulting equation are differential equation.
The integral formulations of basic laws are easier to treat analytically,
for deriving the control volume equation , we need the basic laws of
mechanics and thermodynamics ,formulated in terms of finite systems
 1-5.3 Methods of Description

Use of the basic equations applied to a fixed , identifiable quantity of

mass, keep track of identifiable elements of mass(in particle mechanic
s: the Lagrangian method of description)
Example: th eapplication of Newtons second law to a particle of fixed
mass

Consider a fluid to be composed of a very large number of particle wh

ose motion must be described
With control volume analyses, the Eulerian on the properties of a flow
at a given point in space as a function of time
 1-6 Dimension and Unit

The physical quantities of engineering problems include units:

length,time,mass, and temperature as dimension
The primary quantities(length,time,mass, and temperature as
dimension )and secondary quantities (dimensions are expressible in
terms of the dimension of the primary quantities)
 1-6 Dimension and Unit

1-6.1 System of Dimension a) mass(M), length(L), time(t),

temperature(T)(MLtT)
b) Force(F), length(L), time(t),
temperature(T)(FLtT)
c) Force(F),mass(M) ,length(L),
time(t), temperature(T)
(FMLtT)
 1-6.2 system of unit
a. SI, MLtT(primary) Secondary dimension
unit of mass(kg) Force(N)
length (meter) 1N=1kg. m/s2
time (second) s
temperature (kelvin)

Absolute metric
1dyne=1.g.cm/s2
system of unit
 FLtT, British Gravitati 1 slug = 1lbf.s2/ft
onal system:
force(1bf); length(ft);
time(second);temperat
ure(degree Rankine)
 FMLtT (English Engin gc=32.2 ft.lbm/(lbf. S2)
eering system)
force(1bf) mass(lbm) l
ength(foot) time (seco
nd) temperature (degre
e Rankine)
4. State the three basic system of dimension
5. The typical units of physical quantities in the SI, British
Gravitational, and English Engineering system of units

FLtT: 1bf
Mass: 1slug = 1lbf.s2/ft

FMLtT: gc=32.2 ft.lbm/(lbf. S2)

SI: 1N=1kg. m/s2

Chapter 2 Fundamental Concept

Mechanics and thermodynamics

 2-1 Fluid as a continuum
The average or macroscopic effects of many
molecules.continuum(classic fluid
mechanics)(p, ,T,V is continuous function
of position and time)
the mean free path of the molecules is same
order of magnitude as the smallest
significant characteristic dimension of the
problem(rarefied gas flow)
For determine the density at a point , In fig.2.1 point
C(x,y,z)s density is defined as mass per unit volume, the
mean density within volume V would be given by =
m/V, at point C
m
C lim ' (2 1)
V V V

( x, y , z , t ) (2 2)
 2-2 velocity field

V V ( x, y , z , t ) V ui vj wk
Steady flow unsteady flow
( p, , V .....) ( p, , V .....)
0 0
t t
2-2.1 one-,two-,and three-Dimensional flows
2-2.2 Timelines, Pathlines, streaklines, and Str
eamlines
Visual representation of a flow field: TL; PL, STK
L, STML
Timeline:a number of adjacent fluid particles in th
e flow field are marked at given instant, they form
a line in the field
Pathline: the path or trajectory traced out by movi
ng fluid particle, the line traced out by the particle
Streakline:a number of identifiable fluid particles in the f
low passed through one fixed location in space , the line j
oining these fluid particles is defined as a streakline
Streamline:are lines drawn in the flow field so that at a gi
ven instant they are tangent to the direction of flow at eve
ry point in the flow field. No flow across a streamline
 2-3 Stress Field

Surface and body forces:

body force:gravitational body force gdV
Stress force (nine quantities)to specify the state of
stress in a fluid
Imagine any surface within a flowing fluid, and
consider the contact force applied to the fluid on
one side by that
on the other,surrounding point C,
the surface A
 the unit normal
vector outwardly , the force, n ,
acting on F nay be resolved in two components, one
normal to and the other tangent to the area. The A
normal stress nand a shear stress n are then defined
as: Fn
lim
n (2.6)
An 0 An
Ft
n lim (2.7)
An 0 A
n
 the rectangular coordinates the stress acting on the plane
s whose outwardly drawn normals are in the x,y, or z dir
ections, The first subscript indicate the plane on which th
e stress acts. The second one indicates the direction in wh
ich the stress acts
Fx
xx lim
Ax 0 A
x

Fy Fz
xy lim xz lim (2.8)
Ax 0 A Ax 0 A
x x
The stress at a point is specified by the nine components
xx xy xz

yx yy yz
zx zy zz

stress
denote the normal stress and shear
 2-4 viscosity
We have defined a fluid as a substance that
continues to deform under the action of a shear
stress. Consider the behavior of a fluid element
between the two infinite plates
Fx dFx
yx lim
A 0 A
y dAy
y
 d
deformation rate lim
t 0 t dt
l ut l y
u d du

t y dt dy

2-4.1 Newtonian fluid

Fluid as water,air, and gasoline are Newtonian fluid
du
yx
dy
The different Newtonian fluid will deform at different
rates under the action of the same applied shear stress;
the water, glycerin exhibits a much larger resistance to
deformation than water
Newtons law of viscosity is given for one-dimensional flow by
du
yx
dy
The dimension, [F/L2],du/dy are [1/t], [Ft/L2]; in the SI system, t
he unit of viscosity are kg/(ms) or Pas( 1Pas = 1Ns/m2)(page 26)
The kinematic viscosity( / )[L2/t]is represented. Viscosit
y data for a number of common Newtonian fluid are given in Ap
pendix A. Note that for gases, viscosity increases with temperat
ure, whereas for liquids, viscosity decreases with increasing tem
perature.
 2-4.2 Non-Newtonian fluids
Fluids in which shear stress is not directly
proportional to deformation rate are non-
Newtonian flow: toothpaste and Lucite paint
du n du n 1 du du
yx k( ) k( ) (2.11,12)
dy dy dy dy
 2-5 surface Tension
Surface tension is the apparent interfacial tensile
stress(force per unit length of interface) that acts
whenever a liquid has a density interface, such as
when the liquid contacts a gas, vapor,second
liquid, or solid
Contact angle between the liquid and solid is
defined When the contact angle is less than 900, the
liquid tends to wet the solid surface as shown in
fig2.10a, and the tensile stress due to surface
tension tends to pull the liquid free surface up near
the solid, forming a curved meniscus.
The contact angle>90, the liquid can not wet the solid; surface te
nsion tend sto pull the liquid free surface down along the solid.
The magnitude and direction of surface tension against a solid su
rface depend on the liquid and solid
2-6 Description and classification of fluid mot
ions

Continuum fluid mechanics

Inviscid-(compressible and incompressible)
Viscous-laminar(internal and external)
-turbulent(internal and external)
2-6.1 Viscosity and Inviscid flow
du
yx
dy
 2-6.2 Laminar and Turbulent flows

The basis of flow struc

ture
Smooth motion in lam
inae or layers
Random, three-D moti
ons of fluid particles i
n addition to the mean
motion
2-6.3 Compressible and Incompressible Flows

The variations in density are negligible are termed

incompressible(liquid)
Density variations within a flow are not negligible,
the flow is called compressible(gas)
M=V/c; M<0.3, M>0.3
 2-6.4 Internal and External Flows
Flows completely bounded by solid surfaces called internal
or duct flows. Flows over bodies immersed in an
unbounded fluid are termed external flows.
The incompressible flow through a pipe, the nature of the
flow(laminar and turbulent) is determined by the Reynolds
number:the ratio between inertial force and viscous force
Re V D /
Incompressible flow through pipe
Laminar flow: Re<2300
The flow over a semi-infinite flat plate,
laminar:Re<500000
 Chapter 3 Fluid Static
Absence of shear stresses, fluid either at rest or in rigid-
body motion are able to sustain only normal stresses,
fluid element do not deform.
 3-1 The Basic equation of fluid statics
Newtons second law to a fluid element of mass dm= dV
Body forces(gravity) and surfaces forces are applied to
fluid element(no shear stress, include pressure force)

The body force is dFB gdm gdV gdxdydz
Pressure is scalar field, p=p(x,y,z),using Taylor series
expansion, the pressure of left face of the element is:
p p dy
PL p ( y L y ) p ( )
y y 2
The right face: p p dy
PL p ( yR y) p
y y 2
p p p
dFs ( i j k )dxdydz
x y z
The gradient of a scalar field gives a vector field

dFs gradp(dxdydz) pdxdydz (3.1)

dF dFB dFs (p g )dV

dF
p g (3.2)
dV
For a static fluid,

a 0 dF ma 0

p g 0 (3.3)

p p p
0 0 g (3.5)
x y z
dp
g (3.6)
dz
Restriction (1) Static fluid
(2) Gravity is the only body force
(3) The z axis is vertical and upward
3-2 The standard atmosphere
3-3 Pressure variation in a static fluid
dP
g
dz
3-3.1 incompressible liquid:Manometers
p z
p0
dp gdz
z0
p p0 g ( z0 z )

z0 z h p p0 gh (3.7)
 Incompressible liquid:manometers

p A pB 1 gh1
pB pC 2 gh2
p A pC 2 gh2 1 gh1
3-3.2 Gases (compressible fluid)
The pressure varies with altitude or temperature T T0 mz
pg pg
dp gdz dz dz
RT R (T0 mz )
mz g / mR T g / mR
p p0 (1 ) p0 ( ) (3.8)
T0 T0
3-5 Hydrostatic force on submerged surfaces
Determine the resultant force acting on a submerged surface we
must specify:
(1) The magnitude of the force
(2) The direction of the force
(3) The line of action of the force
3-5.1 hydrostatic force on a plane submerged surface
The hydrostatic force on any element of the surface must act normal

to the surface dF pdA (3.9)
 The resultant force acting on the surface is found by summing the
contributions of the infinitesimal forces over the entire area.

FR pdA (3.10)
A

dp h
g p p0 gdh p0 gh h y sin
dh 0

The point of application of the resultant force(the center of

pressure) must be such that the moment of the resultant force about
any axis is equal to the moment of the ' distributed force about the
same axis, the position r
vector is designated as
'
r FR r dF r pdA (3.11)
'
r x 'i y ' j r xi yj dA dAk

Substitute into Eq.(3.11) gives y ' FR ypdA and x ' FR xpdA(3.12)

A A
1. The resultant force is the sum of the infinitesimal forces (3.10)
2. The moment of the resultant force about any axis is equal to the
moment of the distributed force about the same axis(3.12)
In evaluating the hydrostatic force acting on a plane submerged surf
ace, the resultant force and moment is:

1. The magnitude of FR is given by

FR FR pdA (3.13)

2. The direction of FR is normal to the surface

3. For a surface in the xy plane, the line of FR passes through the po
int x,y ( the center of pressure), where

y FR ypdA
'
and x FR xpdA
'
A A
3-5.2 Computing equation for pressure force and point of
application on a plane submerged surface

The pressure distribution on the lower surface is uniform ambient

pressure p0 , on the upper surface is given by

p p0 gh
 The magnitude of the resultant force on the upper surface is
FR pdA p0 A g sin ydA
A A
The yc is the y coordinate of the centroid of the area A thus

FR p0 A g sin yc A ( p0 ghc ) A pC A (3.14)

To find the expressions for coordinates of the center of pressure , the

moment of the resultant force about any axis must be equal to the
moment of the distributed force about the same axis
yFR ypdA
A

yg sin yc A yghdA g sin y 2 dA

A A

I xx
I xx y dA 2
y yc (3.15a )
A Ay c
I xx Is the second moment of the area about the centroid x axis
The same ruler:

I xy
x xc (3.15b)
Ay c
3-5.3 Hydrostatic force on a curved submerged surface

dF pdA (3.9)

FR pdA (3.10)
A


FR iFRx jFR y kFRz (3.16)

FRx FR i dF i pdA i pdAx
A Ax

In general in the l direction the component of resultant force is:

FRl pdAl
Al
With the free surface at atmospheric pressure, the vertical
component of the resultant hydrostatic force on a curved
submerged surface is equal to the total weight of the liquid
directly above the surface.
FRZ FV pdAZ p gh
FV ghdAZ gdV gV
Basic equation in integral form
for a control volume
4-1 Basic laws for a system
4-1.1 Conservation of mass
dM
system 0 (4.1a )
dt
M system dm dV (4.1b)
M system M system

4-1.2 Newtons second law ( Conservation of momentum )

dP
F (4.2a )
dt system

Psystem Vdm VdV (4.2b)
M system M system
4-1.3 The angular
Momentum principle
dH
T (4.3a )
dt system

H system r Vdm r VdV (4.3b)
M system H system

T r Fs r gdm Tshaft (4.3a )
M system
4-1.4 The first of thermodynamics
Q W dE
dE
Q W (4.4a)
dt system
Esystem edm edV (4.4b)
M system Vsystem

V2
eu gz (4.4c)
2
4-1.5 The second Law of Thermodynamics
Q
dS
T
dS 1
Q (4.5a)
dt system T
S system sdm sdV (4.5b)
M system Vsystem

4-2 Relation of system derivatives to the control volume

formulation
M 1

P V

N system H r V dv
V system
E e
S s

The control volume is fixed in space relative to coordinate syste
m xyz,during t+dt-t time the system has been chosen so that the
mass within region I enters the control volume during interval dt
, and the mass in region III leaves the control volume during the
same interval.
dN ( N cv N I N III )t0 t N cv t0
lim (4.8)
dt system t 0 t
 dN N cv )t0 t N cv t0 N III )t0 t N I )t0 t
lim lim lim (4.9)
dt system t 0 t t 0 t t 0 t
The surface of control volume include: surface of the flow enter
the control volume and the surface of the flow leaves the control
volume and he surface no flow pass it
dN dV (l cos dA)
l
lim V
t 0 t
dN N
cs V dA cos
dt s t s
dN
CV dV cs V dA (4.11)
dt s t
4-3 Conservation of mass:(N=m; 1 )

dN
CV dV cs V dA (4.11)
dt s t
dM
CV dV cs V dA (4.12)
dt s t
conservation


t CV
dV V dA 0
cs
(4.13)
4-3.1 special cases
incompressible, nondeformable control volume of fixed size an
d shape


cs
V dA 0
The integral of V dA over a section of the control surface
is commonly called the volume flow rate or volume
rate of flow. For incompressible flow , the volume flow
rate into a fixed control volume must be equal to the volume
flow rate out of the control volume
Q
AV dA Q V
A
V dA 0
cs
(4.16)
At a section, uniform flow, density is constant


An
V dA nVn An

4-4 momentum equation for inertial control volume N P V
dN
CV dV cs V dA (4.11)
dt s t

dP
VdV VV dA (4.17)
dt s t CV cs

Newtons second law for a system moving relative to an inertial

coordinate system
dP
F FS FB
dt s
The sum of all forces (surface and body) acting on a nonaccele
rating control volume is equal to the sum of the rate of change
of momentum inside the control volume and the net rate of flu
x of momentum out through the control surface

We denote the body force per unit mass as B

FB Bdv FS pdA
CV A

Fx FS x FBx udV uV dA
t CV cs

Fy FS y FB y vdV vV dA
t CV cs

Fz FS z FBz wdV wV dA
t CV cs
4-4.1 Differential Control volume analysis
Application of the basic equations to a differential control volume
leads to differential equations describing the relationships among
properties in the flow field (property variations) For the case Steady,
incompressible, frictionless flow along a streamline, integration of
one such differential equation leads to a useful relationship among
speed, pressure, and elevation in a flow field,
The control volume is bounded by streamlines, flow across the
bounding surfaces occurs only at the end section,
p, ,Vs , A
p dp, ,Vs dVs , A dA
a. Continuity equation
Assumption: Steady,no flow across bounding streamlines,
incompressible flow

Basic equation:
t CV
dV V dA 0
cs
(4.13)
 | Vs A | | (Vs dVs )( A dA) | 0
Vs dA AdVs dAdVs 0
Vs dA AdVs 0
b. Streamwise component of the momentum equation
Assumption: No friction, pressure forces only
Basic equation:

FS s FBs VV dA u s V dA
cs cs

dp
FS s pA ( p dp)( A dA) ( p )dA
2
Where Fsb is the pressure force acting in the s direction on the
bounding stream surface of the control volume
 dp
FS s dpA dA
2
FBs g s dV ( g sin )( A dA / 2)ds
where dz sin ds
FBs g ( A dA / 2)dz

The momentum flux will be

CS
u s VdA Vs ( | Vs A |) (Vs dVs )( | (Vs dVs )( A dA) |)
Vs AdVs
Where :
continuity
| Vs A | | (Vs dVs )( A dA) | 0
1 1
Adp dpdA gAdz gdAdz Vs AdVs
2 2
dpdA and dAdz are negligible compared with the remaining term
 dp Vs
d ( ) gdz 0 (4 24)
2
For incompressible flow
p V2
gz C (4.25)
2
For an infinitesimal stream tube control volume, steady,
incompressible flow without friction. We can get
formation(4.25)
, the Bernoulli equation
4-4.2 Control volume moving with constant velocity
The previous equation based on the stationary control volume. A
control volume (fixed relative to reference frame xyz) moving
with constant velocity reference frame XYZ, is also inertial ,
since it has no acceleration with respect to XYZ
 dN
CV dV csVxyz dA (4.26)
dt s t

F FB FS Vxyz dV Vxyz Vxyz dA (4.27)
t CV cs

4-5 Momentum equation for control volume with rectilinear

acceleration
For an inertial control volume (having no acceleration relative to a
stationary frame of reference xyz)

F FB FS Vxyz dV Vxyz Vxyz dA (4.27)
t CV cs

dP
F (4.2a)
dt system

Psystem Vdm VdV (4.2b)
M system Vsystem

If we denote the inertial reference frame by XYZ,for

accelerating control volume (4.27) is not right

dPXYZ d dVXYZ

F
dt dt M system VXYZ dm M system dt dm

The velocity with respect to the inertial (XYZ) and the control v
olume coordinate(xyz) are related by the relative-motion Eq.

VXYZ Vxyz Vrf (4.30)
 Where V is the velocity of the control volume reference frame.

dVXYZ dVxyz dVrf
XYZ xyz rf (4.31)
dt dt dt

dPxyz
F rf dm )s ( 4.32)
M system dt
Linear momentum of the system, to derive the control volume
formulation of Newtons second law

dP

dt
s t CV
VdV VV dA
cs
( 4.17)

F rf dV FB FS rf dV
CV CV

Vxyz dV Vxyz Vxyz dA (4.34)
t CV cs

FS x FBx wxyz Vxyz dA udV uV dA
CS t CV cs

FS y FB y v xyz Vxyz dA vdV vV dA (4.35)
CS t CV cs

FS z FBz u xyz Vxyz dA wdV wV dA
CS t CV cs
4-8 The first law of thermodynamics

dE
Q W (4.4a)
dt system
Esystem edm edV (4.4b)
M system Vsystem

V2
eu gz (4.4c)
2
M 1

P V

N system H r V dv
V system
E e
S s

 dE
CV edV cs eV dA (4.54)
dt s t
Since the system and the control volume coincide at t0

[Q W ]system [Q W ]controlvolume

Q W edV eV dA (4.55)
t CV cs

4-8.1 rate of work done by a control volume

W W s W normal W shear W other

1:Shaft work
2. Normal stresses at the control surface

w F ds
W lim lim F V
t 0 t t 0 dt

W normal nnV dA
cs
3. shear stresses at the control surface

dF dA

W shear VdA
cs

Can be expressed as three terms(shaft; solid ports surface)

4 other work

W W s nnV dA W shear W other (4.56)
cs
 4-8.2 control volume equation

Q W s W shear W other edV eV dA nnVdA
t CV cs cs

nn p

V2
Q W s W shear W other edV (u pv gz) V dA
t CV cs 2
4-9 the second law of thermodyhamics
dS 1
Q (4.5a )
dt system T

S system sdm sdV (4.5b)

M system M system
 M 1

P V

N system H r V dv
V system
E e
S s

dS
CV sdV sV dA (4.58)
dt s t cs

1 Q

t CV
sdV sV dA dA
cs cs T
A
(4.59)
 Introduction to differential
analysis of fluid motion

The chapter 4 describe the basic equation in integral

form for control volume. This chapter present the
differential equations in terms of infinitesimal systems
and control volume
5-1 Conservation of mass
5-1.1 rectangular coordinate system
the control volume chosen is an infinitesimal cube with sides of l
ength dx,dy,dz as shown in Fig5.1. The parameter of flow, density,v
elocity,pressure etc. is defined at center O point

V iu jv kw
To evaluate the properties at each of the six faces of the control
surface, we use a Taylor series expansion about point O, at right
If we define: x 2 1 dx 2
x dx / 2 2 ( )
x 2 x 2! 2

Neglecting higher order term

x
x dx / 2
x 2
At the left face x
x dx / 2
x 2
u x u x
u x dx / 2 u u x dx / 2 u
x 2 x 2
Statement of conservation of mass is
Net rate of mass flux out Rate of change of mass
through the control surface inside the control volume 0

The first term in Eq. We must consider the mass flux

through each
of the six surfaces of the control surface: cs V dA
The net rate of mass flux out through the control surface is given
by u v w
x y z dxdydz

The mass inside the control volume at any instant is the product
of the mass per unit volume and the volume, dxdydz. The rate of
Change of mass inside the control volume is given by

dxdydz
t
u v w
0 (5.1a)
x y z t

i j k
x y z

V 0 (5.1b)
t

5-1.2 Cylindrical Coordinate System

A suitable differential control volume for cylindrical coordinat
e is in Fig.5.2, also define desity, velocity, at the control volu
me center O

V erVr e V kVz
cs
V dA
The mass flux through each of the six faces of control surface,
from the Taylor series expansion about point O.
The net rate of mass flux out through the control surface is given
by Vr V Vz
Vr r r r z drd dz

The mass inside the control volume at any instant is the
product of the mass per unit volume and the volume rd drdz

The rate of change of mass inside the control volume is given

by
rd drdz
t
 1 (rVr ) 1 V Vz
0 (5.2)
r r r z t

1
er e
k
r r z

V 0
t
5-2 Stream function for 2-D incompressible flow
Relation between the streamlines and the statement of conserv
ation of mass, for 2-D incompressible flow in the xy plane

u v
0
x y
If a continuous function , ( x, y, t ) , called the stream function, is
defined such that
u and v (5.4)
y x

The streamline ,at given instant, it tangent to the direction of

flow at every point in the flow field,

V dr 0 (iu jv) (idx jdy )
k(udy vdx)

udy vdx dx dy d 0
x y
Where the time is defined at t0, the volume flow rate, Q, between
streamlines and can be evaluated by consider the flow
across AB or across BC. For a unit depth, the flow rate across AB
Is:
 y2 y2
Q udy dy
y1 y1 y

d dy
y
y2
Q d 2 1
y1

Along BC, d / xdx it is same as the side AB

For a 2-D, imcompressible flow in the cylindrical coordinate, con
servation of mass, (rVr ) V
0
r
streamfunction
1
Vr V
r r
5-3 Motion of a fluid element(kinematics)

5-3.1Fluid translation:Acceleration of a fluid particle in a velocity fi

eld

V p |t V p ( x, y, z , t ) and a p

Vp V p ( x dx, y dy, z dz , t dt )
t t

V V V V
dV p dx p dy p dz p dt
x y z t

V V V V
ap dx p / dt dy p / dt dz p / dt
x y z t

V V V V
u v w
x y z t

DV V V V V
ap u v w
Dt x y z t

It include: total acceleration of a particle, convective acceleration,

and local acceleration

V V V
(V )V u v w
x y z

DV V
a p (V )V (5.10)
Dt t
5-3.2 Fluid Rotation
A fluid particle moving may rotate about the axes,

i x j y k z
The oa and ob rotate to the position shown during the interval dt
v
va vo x
x
 / x
oa lim lim
t 0 t t 0 t
v
xt
x
v
oa
x
Similar, the angular velocity of line ob
u
ob
y
The rotation of the fluid element about z axis is the average
angular velocity of the two mutually perpendicular line
elements 1 v u
z ( )
2 x y
1 w v
x ( )
2 y z
1 u w
y ( )
2 z x
 1 w v u w v u
[i( ) j ( ) k( )] (5.13)
2 y z z x x y
1
V (5.14)
2

The vorticity to be twice the rotation
is defined as
2 V (5.15)
In cylindrical coordinates the vorticity is
1 Vz V Vr Vz 1 rV 1 Vr
V er ( ) e (
) k( ) (5.16)
r z z r r r r

The circulation is defined as the line integral of the tangential

velocity component about a closed curve fixed in the flow

V ds (5.17)
C
For closed curve oacb

v u
ux (v x)y (u y )x vy
x x
v u
( )xy 2 z xy
x x

V ds 2 z dA ( V ) z dA
c A A
5-3.3 fluid Deformation
a. Angular deformation:The angular changes between two mutually p
erpendicular line segments in the fluid. Fig.5.9 in the xy plane the rat
e of decrease of angle between lines oa and ob

900 ( )
 d d d

dt dt dt
d / x v / x ) xt / x v
lim lim ( )
dt t 0 t t 0 t x
d u

dt y
d v u
The rate of angular deformation in the xy plane is dt x y

b. Linear deformation
The element change length in the x direction only if du/dx=0, dv
/dy, dw/dz, changes in the length of the sides may produce chan
ges in volume of the element.
u v w
Volume dilation rate = V
x y z
For incompressible flow, the rate of volume dilation is zero
5-4 momentum equation

dP
F (4.2a)
dt system

Psystem Vdm VdV (4.2b)
M system M system

dV DV V V V V
dF dm dm dm( u v w )(5.22)

dt system Dt t x y z

5-4.1 forces acting on a fluid particle

 xx dx dx
dFs x ( xx )dydz ( xx xx )dydz
x 2 x 2
yx dy yx dy
( yx )dxdz ( yx )dxdz
x 2 x 2
dz dz
( zx zx )dxdy ( zx zx )dxdy
x 2 x 2
xx yx zx
( )dxdydz
x x x
 xx yx zx
dFx dFBx dFS x ( g x )dxdydz (5.23a )
x x x
yy xy zy
dFy dFB y dFS y ( g y )dxdydz (5.23b)
x x x
xz yz zz
dFz dFBz dFS z ( g z )dxdydz (5.23c)
x x x
5-4.2 differential momentum equation
xx yx zx u u u u
g x ( u v w ) (5.24a )
x x x t x y z
xy yy zy v v v v
g y ( u v w ) (5.24b)
y y y t x y z
xz yz zz w w w w
g z ( u v w ) (5.24c)
y y y t x y z
5-4.3 Newtonian fluid :N-S equation
For a Newtonian fluid the viscous stress is proportional to the rate of shearing st
rain(angular deformation rate). The stresses may be expressed in terms of veloci
ty gradients and fluid properties in rectangular coordinates as follow :
v u
xy yx ( ) (5.25a )
x y
w v
yz zy ( ) (5.25b)
y z
u w
zx xz ( ) (5.25c)
z x
2 u
xx p V 2 (5.25d )
3 x
2 v
yy p V 2 (5.25e)
3 y
2 w
zz p V 2 (5.25 f )
3 z
If the expression for the stresses are introduced into the differential
equations of motion(eqs 5.24) we obtain
Du p u 2 u v
g x [ (2 V )] [ ( )]
Dt x x x 3 y y x
w u
[ ( )]
z x z

Dv p v 2 u v
g y [ ( 2 V )] [ ( )]
Dt y y y 3 x y x
v w
[ ( )]
z z y
Dw p w 2 v w
g z [ (2 V )] [ ( )]
Dt z z z 3 y z y
w u
[ ( )]
x x z
Chapter 6 Incompressible invisci
d flow
Many flow cases is reasonable to negl
ect the effect of viscosity , no shear st
resses are present in inviscid flow, no
rmal stress are considered as the nega
tive of the thermodynamic pressure -p
6-1 momentum equation for frictionless flow: Eulers equations
p u u u u
g x ( u v w ) (6.1a )
x t x y z
p v v v v
g y ( u v w ) (6.1b)
y t x y z
p w w w w
g z ( u v w ) (6.1c)
y t x y z

V V V V
g p ( u v w )
t x y z

V
g p ( (V )V ) (6.2)
t

DV
g p (6.3)
Dt
 2
p Vr Vr Vr Vr V
g r ( Vr V Vz ) (6.4a)
r t r z r
1 p V V 1 V V VrV
g ( Vr V Vz ) (6.4b)
r t r r z r
p Vz Vz 1 Vz Vz
g z ( Vr V Vz ) (6.4c)
z t r r z
6-2 Eulers equation in streamline coordinates
The motion of a fluid particle in a steady flow, streamline coordina
tes also may be used to describe unsteady flow streamline in unste
ady flow give a graphical representation of the instantaneous velocit
y field.
 p ds p ds
(p )dndx ( p )dndx g sin dsdndx as dsdndx
s 2 s 2
 p
g sin as
s
p z
g as
s s
DV V V
as V
Dt t s
p z V V
g V (6.5a)
s s t s
p V
V (6.5b)
s s

p dn p dn
(p )dsdx ( p )dsdx g cos dsdndx an dsdndx
n 2 n 2
 p
g cos an
n
p z
g an
n n
V2
an
R
p z V 2
g (6.6a )
n n R
p V 2
(6.6b)
n R
6-3 Bernoulli equation-integration of Eulers equation along a strea
mline for steady flow
For incompressible inviscid flow
6-3.1 Derivation using streamline coordinates
Along streamline:
 1 p z V
g V
s s s
dp
gdz VdV

dp V 2
2 gz C (6.8)

p V2
c
2
gz C (6.9)

6-3.3 Static, Stagnation, and Dynamic Pressure

The static pressure is that pressure which would be measured by a
n instrument moving with flow.
The stagnation pressure is obtained when a flowing fluid is
decelerated to zero speed by a frictionless process. Neglecting
elevation difference,

p V2
C
2
 V 2
p0 p
2
1 2( p0 p)
The dynamic pressure V 2 V
2
 Q Q dm Q
Q m
dt dm dt dm
Incompressible v v 1 /
1 2

p1 V12 p2 V22 Q
gz1 gz2 (u2 u1 ) (6.15)
2 2 dm
6-5 unsteady Bernoulli equation-integration of Eulers equation alo
ng a streamline

p DV DV
gk ds (6.3)
Dt Dt

p DV DV V V
ds gk ds ds ds V ds ds (6.18)
Dt Dt s t

p ds dp(the change in pressure along s)
k ds dz (the change in z along s )
V
ds dV (the change in V along s)
s
dp V
gdz VdV ds (6.19)
t
 2 dp V22 V12 2 V
1

2
g ( z 2 z1 )
1 t
ds 0 (6.20)

p1 V12 p2 V22 2 V
gz1 gz2 ds (6.21)
2 2 1 t

Restrictions (1) incompressible

(2) Frictionless flow
(3) Flow along a streamline
6-6 irrotational flow
The fluid element moving in the flow field without any rotation
1
V 0
2
w v u w v u
0 (6.22)
y z z x x y
1 Vz V Vr Vz 1 rV 1 Vr
0 (6.23)
r z z r r r r

6-6.1 Bernoulli equation applied to irrotational flow

2
p1 V1
gz1 C
2
 p
gk (V )V (6.10)

1
(V )V (V V ) V ( V )
2
p 1 1
gk (V V ) (V 2 ) (6.24)
2 2
p 1
dr gk dr (V ) dr
2

2
dp 1
gdz dV 2
2
p V2
gz C (6.25)
2
Since the dr was an arbitrary displacement Eq.6.25 is valid between an
y two points in a steady, incompressible, inviscid flow that is also irrot
ational.
6-6.2 Velocity potential
We formulated the stream function which relates the streamlines and
mass flow rate in 2-D , incompressible flow.
we can formulate a relation called the potential function for a velocit
y field that is irrotational.
curl(grad ) = = 0 (6.26)

V (6.27)

u v w (6.28)
x y z
1
er
e
ez
(3.21)
r r z
1
Vr V Vz (6.29)
r r z
 The velocity potential exists only for irrotational flow. The stream fu
nction satisfies the continuity equation for incompressible flow; the s
tream function is not subject to the restiction of irrotational flow.
6-6.3 stream function and velosity potential for 2-D , irrotational , in
compressible flow: Laplaces equation

u v (5.4)
y x

u v (6.28) v u 0 (6.22)
x y x y
Irrotational flow 2 2
2 0 (6.30
x 2
y
continuity equation
u v
0 (5.3)
x y
2 2
2 0 (6.31)
x 2
y
Along streamline c
d 0

d dx dy 0
x y
dy / x v v
(6.32)
dx / y u u
Along a line of constant , d = 0

d dx dy 0
x y
dy / x u
(6.33)
dx / y v
We see that the slope of a constant streamline at any point is the
negative reciprocal of the slope of constant velocity potential line
at that point; lines of constant stream and constant velocity
potential are orthogonal
6-6.4 Elementary Plane Flow
A variety of potential flows can be constructed by superposing eleme
ntary flow patterns, five elementary 2-D flows-----a uniform flow, a s
ource, a sink, a vortex, and a doublet----are summaried in Tablet 6.1

6-6.5 superposition of elementary plane flows

Both stream function and velocity potential satisfy Laplaces equatio
nfor flow that is both incompressible and irrotational . Sincer Laplac
es equation is a linear, homogeneous partial differential equation , so
lution may be superposed to develop more complex and interesting p
atterns of flow
 Chapter 7 Dimensional Analysis
And Similitude
The real physical flow situation is approximated with
a mathematical model that is simple enough to yield a
solution, then experimental measurements are made
to check the analytical results. Experimental
measurement is very time-consuming and expensive.
When experimental testing of a full-size prototype is
either impossible or prohibitively expensive. The
model flow and the prototype flow must be related by
known scaling laws.
7-1 Nature of dimensional analysis

The physical parameters can write the symbolic equation:

F f ( D, V , , )
We need do many experiments for determining the
parameter (diameter, velocity,density,fluid viscosity),
through the use of dimensional analysis, we can get very
useful formulation ( example 7.1)
F VD
f1 ( )
V D
2

The Buckingham Pi Theorem is a statement of the relatio
n between a function expressed in terms of dimensional p
arameters and a related function expressed in terms of no
ndimensional parameter
7-2 Buckingham Pi Theorem

The dependent parameter is a function of n-1 independent

parameters, we may express the relationship among the
variables in functional form as
q1 f (q1 , q2 ,..., qn )
g (q1 , q2 , q2 ,..., qn ) 0
F f ( D, V , , )
g ( F , D, V , , ) 0
The n parameters may be grouped into n-m independent
dimensionless ratios, or II parameters, expressible
functional form by
 G (1 , 2 ,...., n m ) 0
or
1 G1 ( 2 , 3 ,...., n m )

The number m is usually equal to the minimum number of

independent dimensions required to specify the dimensions
of all the parameters
21 13 / 4
5 or 6 2
2 3 3
7-3 Determining the II groups
The six steps listed below outline a recommended proce
dure for determining the II parameters
Step1. List all the dimensional parameters involved
Step 2. Selected a set of fundamental dimensions MLt ..
Step 3. List the dimensions of all parameters in terms of

primary dimensions
Step 4. Select a set of r dimensional parameters that
include all the primary dimensions
Step 5. Set up dimensional equations, combining the
parameters selected in step 4 with each of the
 Other parameters in turn , to form dimensionless
group
Step 6. Check to see that each group obtained is
dimensionless
7-4 Significant Dimensionless groups in fluid mechanics
In flow field, we use physical force such as interia, viscou
s, pressure, gravity, surface tension, and compressibility
Viscous force du V 2
A A L VL
Pressure force dy L
Gravity force
(p ) A (p ) L2
mg gL3
Surface tension force
L
 V D V D
Re

VL VL
Re No. Re

p
Pressure coefficient: Cp
1
V 2
2
Cavitation phenomena, the pressure express as cavitation
number: p pv

1
V 2
2
Froude number was significant for flows with free surfac
e effects which may be interpreted as the ratio of inertia f
orce to gravity forces.
V V 2 V 2 L
Fr Fr 2

gL gL gL3
The Weber number is the ratio of inertia forces to surface
tension forces V 2 L
We

Compressibility effects M V V V
c dp Ev
d
V 2 2
L
M
2

Ev L2
As a ratio of inertia forces to forces due to compressibili
ty
7-5 Flow similarity and model studies
Geometric similarity..model and prototype have same sh
ape and both flow are kinematically similar
Kinematically similar: velocities at corresponding points ar
e in the same direction and are related in magnitude by a co
nstant scale factor, the streamline patterns related by a cons
tant scale factor
Kinematic similarity requires that the regimes of flow be th
e same for model and prototype.
VD VD Re mod el Re prototype

mod el prototype
Then the dependent parameter is duplicated between model
and prototype
F F

2 2

2 2
V D mod el V D prototype
And the result determined from the model study can be
used to predict the drag on the full-scale prototype. As
long as the Reynolds numbers are matched. The actual
force on the object due to the fluid have the value of its
dimensionless group.
Effects are absent from the model test.
F VD
f1 ( ) Re mod el Re prototype
V D
2 2

The prototype condition Vp = 8.44 ft/s

Vp Dp
Re p 4.99 105
p
Vm Dm
Dynamically similar Re m 4.99 105
m
m
Vm Re m 157 ft / s
Dm

F F

2 2

2 2
V D mod el V D prototype
p V p2 D p2
Fp Fm 53.9lbf
m Vm Dm
2 2
7-6 Nondimensionalizing the basic differential equation
Use the Buckingham Pi theorem , a more rigorous and broa
der approach to determine the conditions under which two f
lows are similar is to use the governing differential equation
s and boundary conditions. Two physical phenomena are go
verned by differential equations and boundary conditions th
at have the same dimensionless forms. Dynamic similarity i
s guaranteed by duplicating the dimensionless coefficients o
f the equations and boundary conditions between prototype
and model.
Nondimensionalizing the basic differential equation, steady
incompressible 2-D flow in the xy plane
u v
0 (7.7)
x y
u u p 2u 2u
u v 2 2 (7.8)
x y x x y
v v p 2v 2v
u v g 2 2 (7.9)
x y y x y
The pressure nondimensional by dividing by V2

x y u v p
x
*
y
*
u
*
v
*
p
*

L L V V V2
V u * V v*
0 (7.11)
L x *
L y *

V2 * u * * u * V2 p* V 2u * 2u *
u v *
2 (7.12)
L x *
y L x *
L x * 2
y
* 2

V2 * v* * v* V2 p* V 2 v* 2 v*
u v g
*
2 (7.13)
L x *
y L y *
L x * 2
y
* 2

u * v*
* 0 (7.14)
x y
*

* u * * u
*
p* 2u * 2u *
u v *
*
(7.15)
x
*
y x
V L x * 2
y
* 2

* v* * v
*
gL p * 2 v* 2 v*
u v 2 *
*
(7.16)
x
*
y V y
V L x * 2
y
* 2
The differential equations for two flow system will be ident
ical if the quantities / V L and gL / V2

Are the same for both flows. Thus , model studies to determ
ine the drag force on a surface ship require duplication of b
oth the Froude number and the Reynolds number to ensure
dynamically similar flows.
Emphasize that in addition to identical nondimensional equ
ation, the nondimensional boundary conditions also must be
identical if the two flow are to be kinematically similar . Th
e periodic flow define the velocity on the boundary:
ubc V sin t
Nondimensionalize time:
V
t* t
V L
V
ubc bc sin t *
* u L
Duplication of the boundary condition requires that parame
ter be
L /the
V same between the two flows. This para
meter is the Strouhal number
L
St
V
 Chapter 8 Internal
incompressible viscous flow
Flow completely bounded by solid surfaces are called
internal flows: pipes, nozzles, diffusers, sudden
contractions and expansions, valves, and fittings.
Laminar and turbulent flow, some laminar flow may
be solved analytically, the case of turbulent flow we
must rely heavily on semi-empirical theories and on
experimental data. The flow regime is primarily a
function of the Reynolds number.
8-1 introduction
The pipe flow regime(laminar or turbulent) is determined
by the Reynolds number, the qualitative For
laminar flow, the entrance length,L, is the function of
Reynolds number,
L V D
0.06
D
Part A Fully Developed Laminar Flow
8-2 Fully developed laminar flow between infinite parallel
plates
8-2.1 Both plates stationary
Boundary at y=0 u=0; y=a u=0. u=u(y)(v=w=0)
For analysis we select a differential control volume of size
dV=dxdydz and apply the x component of the momentum e
quation
Assumption (1) steady flow (2) fully developed flow
(3) FBx = 0

Basic equation FS x uV dA (4.19a )
cs

For fully developed flow, the net momentum flux through t

he control surface is zero. FSx = 0
The next step is to sum the forces acting on the control volu
me in the x direction. We recognize that the normal forces(p
ressure forces) act on the left and right aces and tangential f
orces(shear forces) act on the top and bottom faces faces.
 p dx
dFL (p )dydz
x 2
p dx
dFR ( p )dydz
x 2
d yx dy
dFB ( yx )dxdz
dy 2
d yx dy
dFT ( yx )dxdz
dy 2
 p d yx
0 (8.3)
x dy
d yx p p
C yx y c1
dy x x
du du p
yx y c1
dy dy x
1 p 2 c1
u y c2 (8.4)
2 x
According to boundary condition

a 2 p y y
2

u ( ) (8.5)
2 x a a
Shear stress distribution
p y 1
yx a( ) (8.6a )
x a 2
Volume flow rate
a 1 p 2
Q V dA ( y ay )dy
0 2 x
A

Q 1 p 3
a (8.6b)
l 12 x
Flow rate as function of pressure drop
p p2 p1 p

x L L
Q a 3p
(8.6c)
L 12 L
Average velocity

Q 1 p a 3l 1 p 2
V a (8.6d )
A 12 x la 12 x

Point of maximum velocity

du a 2 p 2 y 1
( )
dy 2 x a a
du 1 p 2 3
0 y a / 2 umax ( )a V (8.6e)
dy 8 x 2

Transformation of Coordinates
Transform from y=0 at bottom to y=0 at centerline
 a p y 1

2 2

u ( ) (8.7)
2 x a 4
8-2.2 Upper plate moving with constant speed, U
The boundary condition
u=0 at y=0; u=U at y=a
(8-4) is equally valid for the moving plate case , velocity di
stribution is given by
 1 p 2 c1
u y c2 (8.4)
2 x

From BC. We have

y0 u 0 c2 0
ya u U
 1 p 2 c1 U 1 p
U a a c1 a
2 x a 2 x
Uy a 2 p y 2 y
u ( ) ( ) (8.8)
a 2 x a a
Shear stress distribution
U p y 1
yx a( ) (8.9a )
a x a 2

Volume flow rate Q V dA a uldy

A 0

Q a Uy 1 p 2
[ ( y ay )dy
l 0 a 2 x
Q Ua 1 p 3
a (8.9b)
l 2 12 x
 Average Velocity
Q Ua 1 p a 3l U 1 p
V l[ ] / la a(8.9c)
A 2 12 x la 2 12 x
Point of Maximum velocity
du U a 2 p 2 y 1
( ) 2
dy a 2 x a a
du a U /a
0 y
dy 2 (1 / )(p / x)
 8-3 Fully developed laminar flow in a pipe

For a fully developed steady flow, the x component of

momentum equation applied to the differential control
volume, reduce to

FS x 0
On the control volume in the x direction. Normal forces
(pressure surface) acting on the left and right ends of the
control volume, and that tangential forces(shear forces) act
on the inner and outer cylindrical surfaces as well
Pressure force on dFL p 2rdr
the left
p
Pressure force on dFR ( p dx)2rdr
x
the right
Shear force on the dFl rx 2rdx
inner cylindrical
d rx
On the outer dFO ( rx dr )2 (r dr )dx
dr
cylindrical
 p rx d rx 1 d (r rx )
(8.10)
x r dr r dr
1 d rx p r 2 p
C r rx c1
r dr x 2 x
du du r p c1
rx
dr dr 2 x r
r 2 p c1
u ln r c2 (8.11)
4 x
Boundary condition u=0 r=R, and the physical
considerations that the velocity must be finite at r=0, the
only way that this can be true is for c1 to be zero
r 2 p R 2 p
u c2 c2
4 x 4 x
 R 2 p r
2
velocity u 1 (8.12)
4 x R

r p
Shear stress distribution yx ( ) (8.13a )
2 x
R 1 p 2
A 0 4 x )2rdr
2
Volume flow Q V d A ( r R
rate
R 4 p
Q (8.13b)
8 x

p p2 p1 p
Flow rate as a
function pf x L L
pressure drop pD 4
Q (8.13c)
128L
The average velocity
Q R 2 p
V 2 (8.13d )
R 8 x
The maximum velocity is on the point
du r p
( )
dr 2 x
du R 2 p 2
0 r 0 umax U ( )a 2V (8.13e)
dr 4 x

The velocity profile(8.12) can be written in terms of the

maximum velocity as
u r
1 ( )2 (8.14)
U R
Part B Flow in Pipes and Ducts
This section is to evaluate the pressure changes from the
flow velocity and from friction.
To develop relations for major losses due to friction in
constant-area ducts,
8-4 Shear stress distribution in fully developed pipe flow
In fully developed steady flow in a horizontal pipe, be it la
minar or turbulent, the pressure drop is balanced only by sh
ear forces at the pipe wall.
Assumption: Horizontal pipe, FBx 0
Steady flow, incompressible flow, Fully developed flow
The x component of the momentum equation:

Fx FS x FBx udV uV dA
t CV cs
The shear stress on the fluid varies linearly across the
pipe, from zero at the centerline to a maximum at the pipe
wall, at the surface of the pipe
R p
w [ rx ]r R (8.16)
2 x
To relate the shear stress field to the mean velocity field,
we could determine analytically the pressure drop over a
length of pipe for fully developed flow for laminar flow.
In turbulent flow, no simple relation exists between the
shear stress field and the mean velocity field. For fully
developed turbulent pipe flow, the total shear stress is:
du
lam turb u v (8.17)
dy
The profile fits the data close to the centerline, it fails to
give zero slope there. It give adequate results in many
calculation.
For Re>2x104 : n=-1.7+1.8logReU (8.23)

V Q/ A and Q V dA
A
The ratio of the average velocity to the centerline velocity
V 2n 2
(8.24)
U (n 1)(2n 1)
8-6 Energy considerations in pipe flow
By applying the momentum equation for a control volume
with the formulation of conservation of mass, we have der
ived all the results. About conservation of energy-the first
law of the thermodynamics, we can get insight into the na
ture of the pressure losses in internal viscous flows can be
obtained from energy equation

Q W s W shear W other edV (e pv) V dA(4.57)
t CV cs

V2
eu gz
2
5-6.1 kinetic Energy Coefficient
Use as the Kinetic energy coefficient

V2 V2 V2
A 2
V dA
A 2
V dA m
2
(8.26a )

V2
A 2
V dA
(8.26b)
m V 2

For laminar flow in a pipe, = 2.0

In turbulent pipe flow, the velocity profile is quite
flat(fig.8.11), substitute the power-law velocity profile
into(8.26b)
3
U 2n 2
(8.27)
V (3 n)(3 2n)
8-6.2 head loss
Using the definition of , the energy equation can be w
ritten
p p V 2
V 2
Q m (u2 u1 ) m ( 2 1 ) m g ( z2 z1 ) m ( 2 2 1 1 )
2 2

p1 1V1 2 p2 2V22 Q
( gz1 ) ( gz2 ) (u2 u1 ) (8.28)
2 2 dm
The mechanical energy per unit mass at a p V 2

( gz )
cross section 2
The difference in mechanical energy per Q
(u 2 u1 )
unit mass between section(1) and (2), it dm
represents the conversion of mechanical
energy at section (1) to unwanted
thermal energy(u2-u1)and the loss of
energy via heat transfer. We identify this
group of terms as the total energy loss
per unit mass and designate it by the 2 hl
symbol p1 1V1 2
p2 2V2
( gz1 ) ( gz2 ) hl (8.29)
2 2
For incompressible, frictionless flow, there is no
conversion of mechanical energy ( p V gz ) to
2

2
internal energy
For viscous flow in a pipe, one effect of friction may be to
increase the internal energy of the flow Eq.(8.28)
As the empirical science of hydraulics developed, it was co
mmon practice to express the energy balance in terms of en
ergy per unit weight of flowing liquid rather than energy pe
r unit mass
p1 1V1 2 p2 2V22 hl
( z1 ) ( z2 ) H l (8.30)
g 2 g g 2g g
Equation(8.29) and (8.30) can be used to calculate the
pressure difference between any two points in a piping
system, provided the head loss. hl (or H l )

8-7 Calculation of head loss
hl total head loss is regarded as the sum of major loss, hl
, due to frictional effects in fully developed flow in
constant-area tubes, and minor losses hlm due to
entrances , fittings, area changes, and so on
8-7.1 Major losses: friction factor
V 2
For fully developed flow hl = 0 and
m C
2
Eq.(8.29) becomes
p1 p2
g ( z 2 z1 ) hl (8.31)

If the pipe is horizontal p1 p2 p
hl (8.32)

Since head loss represents the energy converted by
frictional effects from mechanical to thermal energy , head
loss for fully developed flow in a constant-area duct
depends only on the details of the flow through the duct.
Head loss is independent of pipe orientation.
a. Laminar flow

pD 4
Q (8.13c)
128L
128QL 128LV (D 2 / 4) L V
p 32
D 4
D 4
D D
L V 64 L V 2
hl 32 (8.33)
D D Re D 2
b. Turbulent flow
The pressure drop can not be evaluate, we get it from the
experimental results and use dimensional analysis. The
pressure drop in fully developed turbulent flow due to
friction is depended on pipe diameter, D, pipe length, L,
pipe roughness, e, average flow velocity, V, fluid density,
and fluid viscosity
p1 p2 p
hl (8.32)

hl L e
2
(Re, , )
V D D
 V2 L
Hl f (8.35)
2g D
The friction factor is determined experimentally(Fig 8.13)
To determine head loss for fully developed flow with known
conditions, the Reynolds number is evaluated first,
Roughness, e, is obtained from Table8.1 the friction factor f
is read from the appropriate curve in Fig8.13,at the known
values of Re and e/D.
For laminar flow, the friction factor from (8.33) and (8.34)
2
64 L V LV2
hl f
Re D 2 D 2
64
f la min ar (8.36)
Re
 e/D>0.001 Re>Re(transition), the friction factor is greater
than the smooth pipe value.
In general, the Re number is increased, the friction factor
decreases as long as the flow remain laminar. At transition
f increases sharply. In the turbulent flow regime, the
friction factor decreases gradually and finally levels out at
a constant value for large Reynolds number .
The Colebrook formula for friction factor
1 e/ D 2.51
0.5
2.0 log( 0.5
) (8.37a )
f 3.7 Re f
e / D 5.74 2
f 0 0.25[log( 0.9 )] (8.37b)
3.7 Re
For turbulent flow in smooth pipes, the Blasius correlation
0.316
f 0.25 (8.38)
Re
The wall shear stress is obtained as
0.25
w 0.0332 V ( 2
) (8.39)
RV
8-7.2 Minor losses(K:loss coefficient from experiments)
V2 Le V 2
hlm K (8.40a ) hlm f (8.40b)
2 D 2
Where Le is an equivalent length of straight pipe.
a. Inlets and Exits
b.Enlargements and Contraction
Fig 8.15 gives the results for sudden expansion and constra
ction
Losses in diffusers depend on a number of geometric and
flow variables. Diffuser data are in terms of a pressure
recovery coefficient defined as the static pressure rise to
inlet dynamic pressure p2 p1
Cp (8.41)
1
V1 2
2
If the gravity is neglected and 1 2 1
p1 V1 2 p2 V22
( ) ( ) hl hlm
2 2

A1V1 A2V2
V1 2 A1 2
hlm (1 ( ) C p
2 A2
 V1 2 1
hlm (1 ( AR ) 2 C p (8.42)
2

For frictionless flow hlm 0

1
Cpi 1 (8.43)
AR 2

Applying the Bernolli equation with the mass conservation

for frictionless flow through the diffuser, the head loss for fl
ow through an actual diffuser maybe written
V1 2
hlm (C pi C p ) (8.44)
2
c.pipe Bends

d. Valves and Fittings

Table 8.4(p367)
8-7.3 Noncircular Ducts
If the square or rectangular cross section may be treated if th
e ratio of height to width is less than about 3 or 4. The correl
ation for turbulent pipe flow are extended for use with nonci
rcular geometries by introducing the hydraulic diameter, def
ined as
4A
Dh (8.45)
P
A is cross-sectional area, and P is wetted perimeter.
For a rectangular duct of width b and height h, A=bh and P
=2(b+h), and the aspect ratio ar=h/b, then
2h
Dh
1 ar
8-8 solution of pipe flow problem
From the total head loss, pipe flow problem can be solved us
ing the energy equation Eq.8.29 . Consider single-path pipe f
low problem.
8-8.1 single-path system
The pressure drop through a pipe system is a function of flo
w rate,elevation change,and total head loss.(1. Major losses
due to friction in constant-area section(Eq.8.34) and minor l
osses due to fittingd,area changes, and so forth (Eq.8.40). Th
e pressure drop
p 3 ( L, Q, D, e, z , system configuration , , )

For the fixed pipe flow(incompressible,roughness,elevation

change) p ( L, Q, D) (8.46)
4
(a) L,Q,and D known, p unknown
friction factor from fig8.13, the total head loss is comput
ed from Eqs.8.34 and 8.40, Eq.29 used to calculate the
p
(Example 8.5)
(b) p,Q, and D known, L unknown
Eq8.29 for head loss. Friction factor calculate from Re and
e/D, Eq.8.34 for unknown length(Example8.6)
p , L,and D known, Q unknown
(8.29) and lead loss; the result is an expression for average
V(or Q) in terms of the friction factor f (see P369)
(d) p, L,and Q known, D unknown
the problem is to determine the smallest pipe size that can
deliver the desired flow rate. Since the pipe diameter is
unknown, neither the Reynolds number nor relative
roughness can be computed directly, and an iterative
solution is required. Example8.8
 p V 2
Q W s edV (u gz ) V dA
t CV cs 2
p2 p1
Win Ws (u2 )m (u1 )( m ) Q


p2 p1 p2 p1
Win m (u2 u1 )m Q
m losses

The losses are determined in terms of the pump efficiency
losses (1 )W in
1 p2 p1 1 V Ap
Win m ( p2 p1 )V A

W 36800hp
in
8-8.2 Pumps in fluid systems
The driving force causing the fluid motion was explicitly st
ated as either a pressure difference or as an elevation differ
ence. The energy per unit mass added by the pump is calcul
ated
p V p V

W pump m gz gz
2 disch arg e 2 suction
W pump p V p V
h pump gz gz (8.47)
m 2 disch arg e 2 suction
 p1 V1 2 p2 V22
1 gz1 2 gz2 h pump hlT (8.48)
2 2
Part C Flow measurement
8-9 direct methods
For determine flow rate (volume or mass of liquid
collected)
8-10 Restriction flow meters for internal flows
Restriction flow meter are based on acceleration of a fluid s
tream through some form of nozzle. Flow separation at the
sharp edge of the nozzle throat causes a recirculation zone t
o form , as shown by the dashed line lines downstream from
the nozzle. The mainstream flow continues to acceleration f
rom the nozzle throat to form a vena contracta at section
(2) and then decelerates again to fill the duct. At the vena co
ntracta, the flow area is minimum, the flow streamlines are
essentially straight, and the pressure is uniform across the c
hannel section
Assumption: steady, incompressible, flow along a streamlin
e, no friction, uniform velocity at section,pressure is unifor
m across sections and z1=z2


t CV
dV V dA 0
cs
(4.13)
 2 2
p1 V1 p2 V2
gz1 gz2 (6.9)
2 2
2 V2 V1
2 2

1
2
p1 p2 (V2 V1 )
2 2 V2

0 V1 A1 V2 A2
2 2
V1 A2

V2 A1
V A2
22

p1 p2 1
2
2 A1

2 p1 p2
V2 (8.49)
[1 ( A2 / A1 ) 2 ]
 The theoretical mass flow rate is then given by
A2
m theoretical V2 A2 2 ( p1 p2 ) (8.50)
1 ( A2 / A1 ) 2
The above formulation is adjusted for Reynolds number and
diameter ratio by defining an empirical discharge coefficient
such that

CAt
m actual 2 (p 1 p 2 ) (8.51)
1 ( At / A1 ) 2

Dt / D1 4 ( At / A1 ) 2
CAt
m actual 2 (p 1 p 2 ) (8.52)
1 4
The velocity-of-approach factor and The discharge
coefficient are combined into a single flow coefficient
C
K (8.53)
1 4
m actual KAt 2 ( p1 p2 ) (8.54)

For the turbulent flow regime, the discharge coefficient

b
C C n (8.55)
Re D 1

The corresponding form for the flow-coefficient

equation is
1 b
K K n
(8.56)
1 4 Re D1
8-10.1 The Orifice Plate
The thin plate , the pressure gaps for orifices may be place
d in several locations, the location of the pressure taps infl
uences the empirically determined flow coefficient, you ne
ed select handbook values of C or K consistent with the loc
ation of pressure gaps
 91.71 2.5
C 0.5959 0.0312 2.1 0.184 8 (8.57)
Re 0D.175
0.2 0.75 104 Re D1 107
8-10.2 The flow Nozzle

6.53 0.5
C 0.9975 (8.53)
Re 0D.15
0.25 0.75 10 4 Re D1 107
a. Pipe installation (K is function of and Re D )
1

b. Plenum installation 0.95<K<0.99

8-10.3 The Venturi
Venturi meters are heavy,bulky,and expensive. The conical
diffuser section downstream from the throat gives excellent
pressure recovery; overall head loss is low. The discharge c
oefficients for venturi meters range from 0.980 to 0.995 at
Re >2x10e+5. C=0.99