Introduction To Geodesy: Lecture Notes

Introduction to Geodesy
LECTURE NOTES:
INTRODUCTION TO GEODESY
By:
PM. Dr.Kamaluddin Hj.Talib (JSUG, FSPU, UiTM)

&
Dr. Abd. Majid Bin A. Kadir (Info-Geomatik, Johor)
1 January 2011
1
COURSE OUTLINE:
I. Earth Structure and Plate Tectonics

Earth Structure
Plate Tectonics
II. Geodesy: General Background

Definition
History
Relationship with other disciplines
III. Earths Surface Representation

Topography
Geoid
Ellipsoid
2
IV. Geodetic Datum
Two Dimensional Cartesian Coords
Three Dimensional Cartesian Coords
Three Dimensional Geodetic Coords
Geodetic Datum
V. Global Geodetic Reference Frames
ITRF System
WGS84 System
VI. Geodetic Infrastructures in Malaysia
Geocentric Datum for Malaysia 2000 (GDM2000)
MyRTKnet
National Geodetic Vertical Datum (NGVD)
MyGeoid
Marine Geodetic Infrastructure
VII. Overview of Modern Space Geodetic
Techniques
3
I. EARTH STRUCTURE AND PLATE TECTONICS
4
EARTH AS PART OF THE PLANETARY SYSTEM
SUN
Neptune
Uranus Saturn Jupiter
Mars
Mercury
Venus
Earth
5
EARTH STRUCTURE
The Blue Planet:

Earth and its atmosphere
6 A cross section through Earth

showing the internal layers
EARTH STRUCTURE
The Crust: is the thin, relatively lightweight outermost rigid

layer. It accounts for only 0.4% of the Earths total mass. Earth
crust consists of continental and oceanic crust. Continental
crust consists of mostly granite with a density of about 2.7g/cm3.
The thin oceanic crust is mostly basalt with a density of about
2.9 g/cm3. The Earths crust is 100-200 km thick.
The Mantle: is the layer beneath the crust, composes 68% of

the Earths mass. Mantle is the hot, partially melted materials,
mainly of silicon, iron and magnesium. The average density is
4.5 g/cm3. The mantle is about 2,900 km thick.
The Core: is the Earths innermost layer. Consists mainly of

iron (90%) and nickel. Its average density is 13 g/cm3. The core
radius is about 3,470 km. The core accounts for about 32% of
the Earths total mass.
7
The principle of buoyancy or isostasy.
8
PLATE TECTONICS
Earthquakes events worldwide (January 1977 through December 1986) showing

occurrences of about 30,000 earthquakes. Notice the pattern they form almost
as if the Earths lithosphere (crust) is divided into sections. 9
PLATE TECTONICS
The major lithospheric plates, showing their directions of relative

movement and the location of the principal hot spots. Note the
correspondence of plate boundaries and earthquake locations. Most of the
million or so earthquakes and volcanic events each year occur along plate
boundaries. 10
PLATE TECTONICS IN 3D
11
12
Lateral movement at transform boundaries causes shear, compression at convergent

boundaries produces buckling and shortening, and extension of divergent boundaries causes
splitting and rifting.
CONTINENTAL DRIFT
The breakup of Pangaea shown in five

stages beginning around 210 million years
ago. Inferred motion of lithospheric plates
is indicated by arrows. Spreading centers
(mid-ocean ridges) are shown in black.
13
PLATE TECTONICS: The breakup of Pangaea
14
SUBDUCTION ZONE:
Earthquakes
& Volcanoes 15
SUNDA
PLATE
INDO-
AUSTRALIAN
PLATE
Aceh Earthquake and Tsunami

December 2004 16
Aceh-
Sumatra
Earthquake
and
Tsunami:
Dec 2004
17
II. GEODESY: GENERAL BACKGROUND
18
BACKGROUND
Surveying and mapping involves:

determining locations on earth,
transforming positions onto flat map,
graphically symbolizing those positions
To establish a system of geographic coordinates,
we first have to know the Earths size and shape
Geodesy is the foundation for surveying, mapping,
GPS/GNSS, geodynamics, etc..
19
DEFINITION:
Geodesy is normally defined as the study of the:
size and shape of the Earth

measurement of the position and motion of points on the
Earth's surface
gravity field determination
Geodesy is a dynamic application of scientific methods in support of

many professional, economic and scientific activities and functions,
ranging from cadastre to mineral exploration; from navigation, mapping
and surveying to the use of remote sensing data for resource
management; from the construction of dams and drains, to the
interpretation of seismic disturbances.
20
Modern Definition of Geodesy (Global Geodetic Observing
System, Springer, 2009):
Geodesy is the discipline that deals with the

measurement and representation (geometry, physics,
temporal variations) of the Earth and other celestial
bodies (Moon and other Planets).
The three pillars of geodesy are:

1) The Earths time-dependent geometric shape
2) The Earths gravitational field
3) The Earths rotation
21
Geokinematics Reference
Frames:
common to all the three
pillars of Geodesy
Earth Gravity
rotation field
THE THREE PILLARS OF GEODESY

22
The functions of modern geodesy (according to the
three pillars of geodesy):
Geokinematics: measuring the geometric shape of the Earths

surface (solid Earth, ice and oceans) and its kinematics and
variations, on a global to local spatial scales from rapid to secular
variations;
Plate Tectonics (regional) and Land
Slides (local)
23
Earth Rotation: monitoring the variations of the Earths rotation

as an indicator of all angular momentum exchange inside, on or
above the solid Earth, as well as of the torques acting on the solid
Earth (including those due to the Sun and the Moon); and
24
Gravity Field: determining and monitoring the Earths gravity

field and inferring the underlying mass redistributions in the solid
Earth, liquid core, atmosphere, oceans, hydrosphere, and
cryosphere.
25
HISTORY OF GEODESY
has been around since approximately 500 BC, not

taken seriously until 100 AD (Ptolemy)
Toscanelli
(1397-1482)
famous
incorrect vision
of the world
26
The world, according to chart from the third century B.C.E.

Eratosthenes drew latitude and longitude lines through important
places rather than spacing them at regular intervals as we do today.
The Alexandria at the mouth of the Nile.
27
notion of the earths gravity started to form in the late 1500s
and early 1600s
mid 18th Century to present - position determined by
terrestrial and astronomical means was needed for making
maps
1960 present the advent of space-based technology has
dramatically revulotunized geodesy
GRACE Twin Satellites Gravity Mission 28

GPS Block-IIR Satellite
GEODESY HAS A SYMBIOTIC RELATIONSHIP
WITH SOME OTHER SCIENCES
29
The revival of geodesy was primarily due
to the advent of Global Positioning
System (GPS) in 1970s. Recent
advancement in space-borne geodetic
techniques also has propel geodesy to a
greater height especially for global
monitoring programs.
Hard Labour Digging Tunnel Digging Machine 30

(Till late 1980s Conventional Geodesy) (after early 1990s GPS and Modern Geodesy)
GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM (GPS)
The Global Positioning System (GPS) was designed for military applications.
Its primary purpose was to allow soldiers to keep track of their position and to
assist in guiding weapons to their targets. The satellites were built by
Rockwell International and were launched by the U.S. Air Force. The entire
system is funded by the U.S. government and controlled by the U.S.
Department of Defense. The total cost for implementing the system was over
$12 billion.
The GPS constellation of satellites consists of at least 24 satellites 21

primary satellites and 3 orbiting spares. They orbit the earth at an altitude of
17,500 KM (10,900 miles) at a speed of 1.9 miles per second between 60N
and 60S latitude. Each satellite weighs 1900 lbs and is 17 feet (5.81 meters)
wide with solar panels extended. The satellites orbit the earth twice a day.
This guarantees that signals from six of the satellites can be received from
any point on earth at almost any time.
31
GPS CONSTELLATION
GPS HAS GPS Nominal Constellation

24 Satellites in 6 Orbital Planes
REVOLUTUNIZED
4 Satellites in each Plane
GEODESY, SURVEYING 20,200 km Altitude
AND NAVIGATION 32
55 Degree Inclination
GPS Receivers
NON-GEODETIC RECEIVER
33
Stesen MyRTKnet JUPEM
34
VRS RTK-GPS Concept
All reference stations are
connected to VRS control center
and GPS observation data from
all these stations is
continuously transmitted to VRS
server over modem, frame relay,
internet or other communication
link.
The computer at the control center

runs a VRS software suite called RTK-
Network, this is the nerve center of
the VRS concept.
35
Geodetic Issues in Applying GPS Technology:
Geodetic datum
Geodetic coordinates
Transformation between geodetic datum
Computation of map projection coordinates
36
Geodetic Issues in Other Geomatic Disciplines:
Control network establishment

Deformation monitoring
Coordinated Cadastral System (CCS)
Spatial Data Infrastructure (SDI)
Geographic Information Science (GIS)
Navigation
37
Geodesy and GPS Surveying
Geodesy provides the theoretical background to GPS surveying 38

CADASTRAL SURVEY
LOT 69 73 & 86 - 88
MUKIM MERLIMAU
DAERAH JASIN
NEGERI MELAKA
Tanpa Skala
Cadastral Title Plan (PA) Based On

Geocentric Datum
GEOREFERENCING OF
CADASTRAL FABRICS TO
GPS CONTROLS
39
TOPOGRAPHICAL MAPPING: WP LABUAN
40
Geodetic datum/geodetic controls/map projection

GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEM (GIS)
Marine GIS Layers
PROPERLY DEFINED GEODETIC DATUM

WILL ALLOW THE SYSTEMATIC GIS
Land GIS Layers DATA INTEGRATION PROCESS
41
Navigation Applications Introduction to Geodesy
Car Navigation
Land, Maritime and Aircraft Navigation:

GEODETIC DATUM AND GPS 42
GEODESY AND GEO-HAZARDS: MONITORING OF
PLATE TECTONICS AND EARTHQUAKES
Present day plate tectonics in South East Asia. 43

GEODESY AND GLOBAL WARMING:
MONITORING OF SEA LEVEL CHANGES
Projected sea level rise (5 m) for Southeast Asia and

44
Northern Australia
GEODETIC SYSTEM IS THE BACKBONE OF NSDI
SPATIALLY SPATIALLY SPATIALLY SPATIALLY
ENABLED ENABLED ENABLED ENABLED
TECHNOLOGY PLATFORM SYSTEM GOVERNMENT
GPS/GNSS
National Geospatial Economic Development
GPS/GNSS
Total Station Data Centre (NGDC) Utility Information System
Land Administration
Land Administration System
Total Station Laser
Ground/Airborne State Geospatial Data (eTANAH) Public Works
Scanning Technology Centre(SGDC)
Ground/Airborne Laser Urban & Regional
Local Geospatial Data G4NRE, MyLIIS, G4E
Scanning
Ocean Technology
Mapping Planning
Systems Centre (LGDC) Planning Information System
Ocean Mapping Systems Real Estate And Facilities
National Digital GIS System For Local Management
Satellite Images
Satellite Images Cadastral Database Authorities National Security
Airborne Sensors (NDCDB)
Airborne Sensors Public Safety
(Radar/Gravity/ Environmental Management
(Radar/Gravity/ Multi Purpose Cadastre System
Magnetic) Tourism
Magnetic) PADU Defense GIS System Integrated Coastal Zone
Spaceborne Sensors
Spaceborne Sensors
(Radar /Altimetry/Etc) Coastal And Marine Management (ICZM)
(Radar /Altimetry/Etc) Marine Geospatial Geoinformation System
Data Base (MGDB) Sustainable Development
BASE MAP (NDCDB/GDM2000)

NATIONAL GEODETIC REFERENCE FRAME (MyRTKnet/GDM2000)
45
NSDI: National Spatial Data Infrastructure
III. EARTH SURFACE REPRESENTATION
46
1) The terrestrial surface refers to the earth's topography. It is
very complex with mountain ranges and oceans and it is the surface
upon which we live and measure. Because the earth is not even, it is
not suitable for exact mathematical computations.
Earths Topography
47
2) The first simplification estimates the earth's surface using mean sea
level of the ocean with all continents are removed - this surface is
called the Geoid. Due to variations in the earth's mass distribution
(oceans and land), the Geoid has an irregular shape that is described as
"undulating". It is an equipotential surface. This means that potential
gravity is the same at every point on its surface.
Geoid representation from

GRACE satellite gravity mission
data
48
EGM96 global geoid solution
49
3) Measurements have shown that the earth is in fact slightly
"squashed" at the poles and bulges at the equator due to forces
acting upon it whilst it spins. Mathematically this shape is described
as an ellipsoid of revolution, an oval that revolves about its
shortest dimension. It is a mathematical approximation of the Geoid.
This shape is used for exact measurements over long distances,
across continents or oceans.
Geoid
Reference
Ellipsoid
50
Formulas:
Flattening: f
f = (a-b)/a
b = a(1 f)
Eccentricity: e
e2 = (a2 b2)/a2
Relationship between
Ellipse that fit the Earth flattening and eccentricity
f = 1 (1-e2)1/2
a = semi-major axis
b = semi-minor axis 51
Radial line to
the circle
a For a circle (or

sphere), the radial
a line will be at right
angle to the
surface at any
given latitude
52
Normal to the
ellipse
b

a For an ellipse (or ellipsoid),
the normal to the surface of
the ellipse will be truncated
by the semi-minor axis.
is geodetic latitude
53
Normal to the
ellipse
b Radius of Curvature:
1) Meridian (north-

south direction): M
a
2) Prime-vertical
(east-west
direction): N
54
Radius of Curvature Formula

The ellipsoid radius of curvature in
the (north-south) meridian M
measured along the normal to the
elipsoid:
This radius of curvature in the prime
vertical N, which is perpendicular, or
normal, to M, measured along the
normal to the ellipsoid:
Radius at a given geodetic
latitude: R
The distance from the Earths center
to a point on the ellipsoid surface at
geodetic latitude is
Note: If a=b, the M=N=R=a at any latitude 55

56
Ellipsoid
earth is ellipse with a slightly
larger equatorial axis than polar
axis (~20 km) due to spinning of
earth
most commonly used model to
calculate position on earth
57
Ellipsoid Parameters
An ellipsoid is usually described by the semi-major axis (a) and a
flattening component (f). Because flattening is a small number and
usually quoted to numerous decimal places, it is sometime given as
1/f.
There are now two Ellipsoids most commonly used to describe the
shape of the Earth:
The first was determined by the International Association of
Geodesy (IAG) is the Geocentric Reference System 1980, or
GRS 80
The second was determined by the US Defence Department
and is known as the World Geodetic System 1984, WGS 84
The GRS80 (and hence the WGS84) is a geocentric system. This
means that the origin of its coordinate systems corresponds with the
centre of mass of the earth. The GRS80 is important to Malaysia as it
is the ellipsoid used to define the GDM2000 (Geocentric Datum for
Malaysia 2000).
58
at least 20
different
determination of
parameters for
ellipsoid since
1800
geodesists use
semi-major axis
and flattening to
identify ellipsoids
59
4) The ellipsoid can be further simplified into a sphere. To define a

sphere, only the radius is required. The radius often used when
modelling the earth as a sphere is 6371 000 meters. This shape is a
close approximation of the earth's shape and is a suitable
approximation for most applications.
f = (a-b)/a f = (a-b)/a
a=b
f=0
60
TOPOGRAPHY, GEOID AND ELLIPSOID
Geoid coincides with the mean-sea-level

over the ocean area
61
IV. GEODETIC DATUM
62
Cartesian Coordinates, Grid Values X and Y
The type of coordinates found in on cadastral and topographic
maps are known as Cartesian Coordinates. Cartesian Coordinates
are related to a line that represents zero in the east-west direction,
known as the X axis, and a line that represents zero in the north-
south direction, known as the Y axis.
Movements by a point away from the axes are recorded as a set of
two values, known as coordinates. Coordinates tell you how far
away from the origin of the axes, 0 on X and 0 on Y, that you are. By
convention, the point's position is identified by quoting the distance
along the X axis first, and distance along the Y axis second, thus
each point has a unique name.
These are the mathematical coordinates you find on a map. In
cartography and surveying, the X axis coordinates are known as
Eastings, and the Y axis coordinates as Northings.
63
64
3D Cartesian Coordinates, X and Y and Z

For most modern space-based positioning systems such
as GPS, the coordinate system used is EARTH CENTERED
EARTH FIXED (ECEF) CARTESIAN SYSTEM (XYZ system).
The Z-axis is pointed towards the mean north pole. The

X-axis points towards the intersection of the Greenwich
meridian and the mean Equatorial plane. The Y-axis makes
the system a right-hand system.
The direction of the X, Y, Z axes are determined by the

IERS (International Earth Rotation Service)
The origin is at the center of the Earth.
65
Z Introduction to Geodesy
EARTH CENTERED EARTH

FIXED (ECEF) CARTESIAN
SYSTEM
Y
IERS (International Earth

66
Rotation Service)
Geodetic Coordinates - Longitude and

Latitude and Ellipsoidal Height
Lines of longitude intersect both the North and South poles. They are
numbered using degrees beginning at the Royal Greenwich Observatory in
England, which is designated as 0, and continue both East and West until
they meet at 180.
Lines of latitude are measured as an angle from the equator (0) to either
Pole, 90 South and 90 North. The equator is a line of latitude.
Latitude and longitude are collectively known as geographic coordinates.
As with cartesian coordinates, one point on the earth can have many different
geographic coordinates assigned to it, depending on how the reference
system was defined. The GDM2000 will have longitude and latitude values that
relate to a reference surface called the Geodetic Reference System 1980
[GRS80].
So, any point on the earth's surface can have a set of geographic coordinates
and a corresponding set of cartesian coordinates. The next section explains
how the two are related. 67
Geodetic Latitude (), Longitude ()
and Height (h) defined on the
surface of an ellipsoid
68
Geodetic Latitude (), Longitude () and
Height (h) defined on the surface of GRS80
ellipsoid
69
Relationship between Cartesian XYZ and Geodetic h
X ( N h) cos cos
Y ( N h) cos sin
b2
Z 2 N h sin
a
where the prime vertical radius of curvature (N) is:
a : the semi-major axis of the reference ellipsoid;

e : the first eccentricity of the reference ellipsoid.
70
Relationship between Geodetic h and Cartesian XYZ
The non-iterative reverse transformation from Cartesian co-ordinates ( XYZ) to geodetic co-
ordinates (h ) is given in Bowring (1985) as:
Z 2b sin 3 u
arctan

P e 2
a cos3
u

arctan
Y
X

h P cos Z sin a 1 e 2 sin 2
Where:
aZ e2
u arctan P X2 Y2
bP 1 e 2
u : the parametric latitude;

b : the semi-minor axis of the reference ellipsoid;
: the second eccentricity of the reference ellipsoid. 71
Ellipsoidal Height (h), Geoidal Height (N)
and Orthometric Height (H)
HH
=h= -hN- N 72
Local Topocentric Geodetic

System (XYZ)LG
73
GEODETIC DATUM
In the context of modern geodesy, a geodetic datum is a framework that enables
us to define geodetic coordinate systems. The framework includes the ellipsoid
and the three dimensional Cartesian system (XYZ).
To describe positions on the earth accurately, traditionally two datums were

required; a horizontal datum and a vertical datum.
Vertical Datum
A Vertical Datum is used to fix a position above the geoid or Mean Sea Level
(MSL). A vertical datum is a line, value or set of values from which heights are
measured. Vertical datum which approximates MSL and has been determined by
monitoring tide gauges around a countrys coastline.
Horizontal Datum
A horizontal datum is used to fix a position in geodetic latitude and longitude.
A horizontal datum was traditionally defined using an ellipsoid and an origin. If
the ellipsoid is chosen for a best fit of the geoid locally, then the datum is called a
Local Datum. On the other hand if the ellipsoid is chosen to best fit the geoid
globally, then the datum is called a Geocentric Datum. 74
Local Geodetic Datum Versus Global Geodetic Datum
Local Geodetic Datum

was widely being used
before the advent of
space geodetic
techniques primarily for
the reduction of terrestrial
observations (angles,
distances, azimuth) to the
ellipsoid for the
computation of geodetic
latitude and longitude.
This concept is called
CLASSICAL GEODETIC
DATUM DETERMINATION
Geoid
75
CLASSICAL GEODETIC DATUM DETERMINATION
DATUM ORIGIN
TOPOGRAPHY
At Datum Origin:
GEOID
Define Ellipsoid Parameters:
a, f
Define Position of Ellipsoid in
relation to Topography:
Astronomical Latitude and

Longitude, (,)
Geoid Height, N
Define Orientation of Elliposid:
Astronomical Azimuth, A
Additional Information (to convert
astronomical quantities to
geodetic quantities):
In the era of classical geodesy (before space geodetic Defelection of the Vetical
techniques became widely available), (,) and A components: (,)
were determined by Astrogeodetic method, while N
and (,) were determined by gravimetric method. 76
MODERN GEODETIC DATUM DETERMINATION
77
With the introduction of GPS, modern geodetic observations
are carried out in three dimensional (3D) space forming
baseline vectors. Observations are no longer needed to be
reduced to the ellipsoid. All network adjustment and
coordinates determination are being carried out in 3D space.
Therefore, for a modern geodetic datum, the

Following must be defined:
MODERN GEODETIC DATUM
1) 3D Cartesian XYZ
2) Reference ellipsoid
(a,f): for compuation of geodetic
latitude and longitude
3) Precise Geoid : for the
conversion of ellipsoidal height to
MSL heights
Note: The ellipsoid is needed only for

determination of geodetic lalitude, longitude and
ellipsoidal height. In classical geodetic datum,
ellipsoid played a very significant role especially as
datum surface for observations reduction and
coordinate determination.
Notice that for a geocentric system,

the origin of the coordinate system
(for Cartesian XYZ and reference
ellipsoid) coincides with center of the
earth. 78
Why a Geocentric Datum?

The main reason was so that we can use the Global Positioning System
[GPS] more easily. GPS is based on a geocentric datum called World
Geodetic System 1984 (WGS84).
The Global Positioning System is becoming more and more widely used
for navigation by both the spatial sciences and the general public world-
wide. Geocentric datum have been adopted for most aeronautical and
shipping applications due to its international capabilities.
As GPS is based on a geocentric datum, to use the coordinates in a local

geodetic datum means we have to convert the coordinates to the local
datum and this will require the need for a complex conversion of
coordinates.
79
PROJECTIONS
World globes are a good estimation of the earth's surface but their
scale is too small to allow you to plan trips across town. A flat map of
the region that we can fold up and put in our pocket is more functional.
To convert the round earth to flat map is complicated. The best way to
illustrate the difficulty in doing this is by thinking of the earth as a
rubber ball with the land and water painted on it. To flatten the rubber
ball into a flat square we need to cut it up and stretch it.
Because the rubber ball is being stretched, the land shown on it will
be distorted from its original shape.
This same, cutting and stretching process is used to make maps
through mathematical formulae called 'Projections'. Projection formulae
take the geographic coordinates from the spherical earth (longitude and
latitude) and convert them to cartesian coordinates (northing and
easting).
There are many projection formulae that can be used and
consequently maps can look very different.
80
round earth to flat map
81
82
83
Cadastral Survey in Malaysia: National Maping in Malaysia:

Cassini Soldner System Rectified Skew Orthomorphic (RSO) System
Cadastral Survey in
LOT 69 73 & 86 - 88
MUKIM MERLIMAU
Peninsular Malaysia:
DAERAH JASIN
NEGERI MELAKA
Transverse Mercator system
Tanpa Skala
known as Cassini Soldner System
National Maping in Malaysia:

Oblique Mercator system
known as
Rectified Skew Orthomorphic
(RSO) System
84
V. GLOBAL GEODETIC REFERENCE FRAMES
85
BACKGROUND
When you use a GPS to get a latitude and longitude this is really a
position on an Ellipsoid . GPS coordinate system itself is referenced
to an Earth Centered Earth Fixed (ECEF) Cartesian (XYZ) system.
Strictly speaking there are two main ECEF 'reference frames'

commonly used in the world today.
One is the International Terrestrial Reference Frame (ITRF)

determined by the International Association of Geodesy (IAG).
The second is the WGS84 reference frame, computed by US Defence.
The main difference between ITRF and WGS84 reference frameworks

is the choice of fixed stations used in their adjustments. Not
surprisingly, the difference between WGS84 and ITRF 2000 is now very
small, generally in the centimeter range worldwide.
86
Measurement
To define a global coordinate system it is necessary to work out where the
North and South Poles are and where the centre of the Earth is. This is done
by very accurately determining the position of a number of locations (called
stations) around the Earth. To do this, geodesists use a variety of methods
such as:
GPS
Satellite Laser Ranging (SLR)
Very Long Baseline Interferometry (VLBI)
All this information goes into a mathematical adjustment and the end result
is X, Y, and Z geocentric coordinates for each station. In other words, by
accurately measuring the difference in position between these points, and
their relationship with celestial objects, it is possible to work out positions
relative to the centre of the Earth and the location of the axis of rotation
(position of the North and South Poles; and the Equator).
In this way, we now have a 'reference frame' made up of accurately
positioned points around the Earth's surface.
By fitting a Ellipsoid into this frame we can turn our X, Y, and Z geocentric
coordinates into latitude, longitude and height above the Ellipsoid.
87
Terrestrial Reference Frame, ITRF
The Earth is constantly changing shape. To be understood in context,
when the motion of the Earth's crust is observed, it must be referenced.
A Terrestrial Reference Frame provides a set of coordinates of some
points located on the Earth's surface. It can be used to measure plate
tectonics, regional subsidence or loading and/or used to represent the
Earth when measuring its rotation in space. This rotation is measured
with respect to a frame tied to stellar objects, called a celestial reference
frame.
The International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service
(IERS) was created in 1988 to establish and maintain a Celestial
Reference Frame, the ICRF, and a Terrestrial Reference Frame, the ITRF.
The Earth Orientation Parameters (EOPs) connect these two frames
together.
These frames provide a common reference to compare observations
and results from different locations. Nowadays, four main geodetic
techniques are used to compute accurate coordinates: the GPS, VLBI,
SLR, and DORIS. 88
SPACE GEODETIC TRACKING NETWORK FOR

THE DETERMINATION OF ITRF
ITRF2008 is the latest realization of the International

Terrestrial Reference System. Following the procedure
already used for the ITRF2005 formation, the ITRF2008
uses as input data time series of station positions and
Earth Orientation Parameters (EOPs) provided by the
Technique Centers of the four space geodetic techniques
(GPS, VLBI, SLR, DORIS). Based on completely
reprocessed solutions of the four techniques, the ITRF2008
is expected to be an improved solution compared to
ITF2005 89
Since the tracking network equipped with the instruments of those
techniques is evolving and the period of data available increases with
time, the ITRF is constantly being updated.
Several realizations of the ITRF were set up from 1988. The latest is
the ITRF2008. All these realizations include station positions and
velocities.
They model secular Earths crust changes, thats why they can be
used to compare observations from different epochs
ITRF SYSTEM
XYZ defined by IERS
Ellipsoid: GRS80
Geocentric System
90
THE THREE PILLARS OF GEODESY:
Geokinematics: measuring the geometric shape of the Earths surface (solid Earth, ice and
oceans) and its kinematics and variations, on a global to local spatial scales from rapid to secular
variations;
Earth Rotation: monitoring the variations of the Earths rotation as an indicator of all angular
momentum exchange inside, on or above the solid Earth, as well as of the torques acting on the solid
Earth (including those due to the Sun and the Moon); and
Gravity Field: determining and monitoring the Earths gravity field and inferring the underlying
mass redistributions in the solid Earth, liquid core, atmosphere, oceans, hydrosphere, and cryosphere.
ITRF SOLUTIONS PROVIDE: Geokinematics & Earth Rotation
Geokinematics:
VX Tracking stations
X
Y
Tracking stations
coordinates in
meters
& VY
velocity in
cm/year
Z VZ
ITRF ITRF 91
GEOKENEMATICS
ITRF2008 station velocity field showing

the tectonics plate motions in cm/year
92
WGS 84 is an earth fixed global reference

frame, including an earth model. It is defined
by a set of primary and secondary parameters:
the PRIMARY PARAMETERS define the shape of an earth ellipsoid, its
angular velocity, and the earth mass which is included in the ellipsoid reference
the SECONDARY PARAMETERS define a detailed gravity model of the earth.
These additional parameters are needed because WGS 84 is used not only for
defining coordinates in surveying, but, for example, also for determining the
orbits of GPS navigation satellites.
At 0000 GMT September 30, 1996 (the start of

GPS Week 873), WGS 84 was redefined again
and was more closely aligned with
International Earth Rotation Service (IERS)
Terrestrial Reference Frame (ITRF94). It is now
formally called WGS 84 (G873). WGS 84
(G873) was adopted as the reference frame for
broadcast orbits on January 29, 1997.
93
VI. GEODETIC INFRASTRUCTURES IN MALAYSIA
94
GEODETIC INFRASTRUCTURES
Development and management of geodetic infrastructures in

Malaysia is carried out by the Geodesi Section at the Jabatan Ukur
Dan Pemetaan Malaysia (JUPEM), Kementerian Sumber Asli Dan
Alam Sekitar (NRE).
Geodetic infrastructures may consists of techniques, technologies,

and services.
Four main aspects of geodetic infrastructures will be briefly

discussed:
Geocentric Datum for Malaysia (GDM2000)
Malaysia Real Time Kinematic GPS Network (MyRTKnet)
National Geodetic Vertical Datum (NGVD)
MyGeoid precise gravimetric geoid for Malaysia
95
VI-I: GEOCENTRIC DATUM FOR MALAYSIA
2000 (GDM2000)
Prior to the introduction of GPS technologies, national mapping and

cadastre in Malaysia relates to the old systems of the Malayan
Revised Triangulation 1948 (MRT48) in the Peninsula and the
Borneo Triangulation 1968 (BT68) in Sabah and Sarawak.
These traditional survey control systems were referenced to a non-

geocentric datum, based on Modified Everest ellipsoids. Both fit well
regionally but not globally (non-geocentric).
In order to fully support Global Positioning System (GPS) activities

and modern positioning infrastructures, a more accurate control
system in the form a geocentric datum is needed.
96
Classical Geodetic Infrastructure
GEODETIC TRIANGULATION
PENINSULAR MALAYSIA
Malaysia Revised 6.50
G058
Triangulation (MRT) 6.00

G071
G028
G035 G023
G029
G057
G040
G047
G031
G054
G030
G044
G003
G025 G032
MRT has been used for geodetic,

G033
G077
G042
G059
G027 G069
5.50 G076
G019
G021 G013
G050
G017
mapping, cadastral and several other

G063 G048
G026
G060
G072 G016
G053 G008
activities since 1948 in Peninsular

G022
5.00
G024
Malaysia
G034
G067
G037 G005
4.50
Kertau Datum and Modified Everest

G004
4.00
ellipsoid G041 G007
G001 G075
G074
G070
G061
3.50 G073
G009
G036
MRT network consists of 77 geodetic, G011

G015
240 primary, 837 secondary and 51 3.00 G052

G055G065
G068 G038 G039
G020
G066 G012
tertiary stations. 2.50

G051
G010
G046
Mostly located at hilltops and

G014
2.00
G049
G002
difficult accessibility 1.50 G084

G062
G045
G043
G056
P075
G018
G064
This geodetic network

P4
1.00
99.00 99.50 100.00 100.50 101.00 101.50 102.00 102.50 103.00 103.50 104.00
is not compatible with GPS

and modern geodetic
requirements 97
Borneo Triangulation (BT68) 98
Still being used for geodetic, mapping and surveying.
Timbalai Datum (Labuan) and Modified Everest ellipsoid
BT68 consists of several networks: A) Borneo West Coast Triangulation of Brunei
and Sabah (1930-1942), B) Borneo East Coast Triangulation of Sarawak (1955-1960) and
C) several Doppler stations.
Mostly located at 7.00
BORNEO TRIANGULATION 1968 (BT68)

hilltops and difficult
accessibility 6.00
This geodetic network SABAH

5.00
Is not compatible with
SOUTH CHINA SEA
GPS and modern
geodetic requirements 4.00
3.00
SARAWAK INDONESIA
2.00
1.00
110.00 111.00 112.00 113.00 114.00 115.00 116.00 117.00 118.00 119.00
Local (non-geocentric) ellipsoid:

PARAMETER MRT BT68
(P. Malaysia) (Sabah & Sarawak)
Reference Ellipsoid Modified Everest Modified Everest
Origin of Triangulation Kertau, Pahang Timbalai, Labuan

System
Semi-major axis ( a ) 6 377 304.063 m 6 377 298.565 m
Flattening ( f ) 1/300.8017 1/300.8017
Map Projection Cassini Soldner BRSO

RSO (Borneo RSO)
99
The establishment of the Malaysia Active GPS System (MASS) in
1999 has provided the impetus for the adoption of the geocentric datum
in all the geodetic activities.
In 2003, JUPEM has introduced a new datum known as GEOCENTRIC

DATUM FOR MALAYSIA 2000 or GDM2000. GDM2000 has been
developed based on several years of GPS dual frequency data and
latest has been adjusted to epoch 2000 (KPUP Circular 1/2009).
GDM2000 is GPS/GNSS compatible. GDM2000 almost identical to

WGS84.
GDM2000 is defined by:

1) An Earth Fixed Earth Centred (EFEC) Three Dimensional Cartesian
Coordinate System defined by ITRF2000@2000 and
2) The adopted reference ellipsoid which is defined by Geodetic
Reference System 1980 (GRS80) ellipsoid
100
Local Geodetic Datum Versus Geocentric Datum
101
GDM2000 System
Geoid
XYZ defined by
ITRF2000@2000
Ellipsoid: GRS80
Geocentric system
Framework Defining WGS84 and GDM2000 Systems
FRAMEWORK WGS 84 GDM2000

EFEC CARTESIAN
COORDINATE WGS84 ITRF2000
REFERENCE SYSTEM
REFERENCE
ELLIPSOID WGS 84 GRS80
ORIGIN CENTER OF MASS OF CENTER OF MASS
THE EARTH OF THE EARTH
SEMI-MAJOR AXIS ( a) 6378137.000 M 6378137.000 M
FLATTENING (f) 1/298.257223563 1/298.257222101
102
Distribution of 15 MASS stations in Malaysia
103
Distribution of eleven (11) IGS stations

used for the development of GDM2000
SHAO
LHAS
KUNM
WUHN
NOTES:
GUAM
PIMO
The Sumatran Earthquakes (2004-2007) has IISC
caused significant displacements in the NTUS
GDM2000(2003) coordinates. Therefore a new

computation was carried out by JUPEM using BAKO
MASS GPS data, MyRTKnet GPS data as well the COCO

KARR
original GDM2000(2003) coordinates. The
resulted GDM2000 is called GDM2000(2009).
[Pekeliling KPUP Bil.1/2009]
A B
DEFORMATIONS TO GDM2000 DUE

TO ACEH 2004 EARTHQUAKE FROM
GPS STATION COORDINATES:
A) Plate motions before 2004 earthquake
B) Plate motions after 2004 earthquake
104
VII-II: Malaysia Real-Time Kinematic GPS
Network (MyRTKnet)
A network of real-time kinematic network of 78 permanent GNSS satellite

tracking stations (50 stations in Peninsular Malaysia completed in 2007
and 28 stations in Sabah & Sarawak shall be completed in 2008)
Began collecting data since 2003
For use in various positioning applications such as surveying, navigation,
engineering, geodynamic and scientific studies 105
The main source of GDM2000 coordinates dissemination
Stesen MyRTKnet JUPEM
106
PROJECTION SYSTEM BASED ON GDM2000(2009)

APPLICATION GDM2000 PROJECTION RESULTING
GEODETIC TYPE PLANE
COORDINATES COORDINATES
CADASTRAL LATITUDE TRANSVERSE GEOCENTRIC

SURVEY LONGITUDE MERCATOR CASSINI
(, ) (N,E)
NATIONAL LATITUDE OBLIQUE GEOCENTRIC

MAPPING LONGITUDE MERCATOR RECTIFIED SKEW
(, ) ORTHOMORPHIC
(GEOCENTRIC
RSO)
(N,E)
For details please refer to: Pekeliling KPUP Bil 3/2009: Garis Panduan
Mengenai Penukaran Koordinat, Transformasi Datum and Unjuran Peta Untuk Tujuan 107
Ukur dan Pemetaan.
EVOLUTION OF POSITIONING
TECHNOLOGIES IN MALAYSIA:
CLASSICAL CONVENTIONAL MODERN

TRIANGULATION GPS GEODETIC MyRTKnet GPS
SYSTEM NETWORK (early NETWORK (2006-
(early 1900-1990) 1990s-2006) Present)
Requires two or more GPS Requires only ONE

Established by the Directorate of GPS receiver
British Colonial Survey based on receivers
survey technology available at STATIC TECHNIQUE (min 1 VRS-RTK TECHNIQUE
that time (MRT46 and BT68). hour observation, Few minutes of data collection
Mostly located at hilltops. station separation 20-30 km, MyRTKnet is the most modern
Difficult accessibility and limited single or dual frequency and accurate control network for
accuracy. Not practical for receiver) disseminating GDM2000
establishing large number of RAPID STATIC TECHNIQUE (min coordinates in Malaysia.
control points. 10-15 minutes, MyGeoid should be integrated
Based on classical geodetic datum Station separation <10km, with MyRTKnet coordinates to
(Kertau dan Timbalai) dual frequency reciever) deliver both horizontal
coordinates and height above
Mean Sea Level (MSL).
Legal Traceability Issues of

MyRTKnet should be urgently
108
addressed
WHOLE TO THE PART CONCEPT
GLOBAL REGIONAL LOCAL APPLICATIONS
ITRF GDM2000
MyRTKnet
109
VI-III: National Geodetic Vertical Datum (NGVD)
Geodetic Vertical Datum (GVD) in theory should be referred to the GEOID.
This is because orthometric height is defined as the height above the geoid.
Due to the difficulty in the past to determine accurate geoid, Mean Sea Level
(MSL) has been adopted as the GVD. This is because geoid can be approximated
by the MSL.
Therefore, for the purpose of measuring the height of objects on land, the
usual datum used is MSL. This is determined by measuring the height of the sea
surface over a long period (preferably around 18 years, to account for all the
astronomical effects that contribute to tide levels).
This allows an average sea level to be determined, with the effects of waves,
tides, and short-term changes in wind and currents removed.
It will not remove the effects of local gravity strength, and so the height of MSL,
relative to a vertical geodetic datum, will vary around the world, and even
around one country.
For this reason, a country will choose the mean sea level at one specific point
to be used as the standard sea level for all mapping and surveying in that
country.
110
MSL as the basis for Vertical Geodetic Datum

111
Development of precise levelling network based on MSL

height at tide gauge station
112
TIDE GAUGE STATION

AND TIDAL ANALYSIS
FOR THE
DETERMINATION OF
MSL
113
PENINSULAR MALAYSIA GEODETIC VERTICAL DATUM
(PMGVD)
8.633 m 5.016 m Tide Gauge Base Point Datum Tegak Geodetik Semenanjung
Malaysia (PMGVD) berasaskan cerapan
Origin of PLN
air pasang surut di Pelabuhan Kelang
7.494 m 3.870 m
dari tahun 1984 hingga 1993
BM B0169
EV
0.065 m MSLLSD12
Sea surface MSLPMGVD

0.000 m
-2.328 m Datum Level (DL)
-2.944 m Zero of Tide Pole
0.000 m -3.624 m Zero of Tide Gauge

PMGVD STATION AT JUPEMS HQ IN
KL DERIVED FROM BM0169 AT PORT
-3.912 m GRS80 Ellipsoid
KELANG 114
Precise Levelling Network of Peninsular Malaysia
L 1470
L 2010
L 1450
6.50
L 1440
1985-98 exercise with SBMs XXII
THAILAND
L2
10
L 14
020
Geting
planted every 5 km and BMs L 1770
L 14
XXI
L 1400
60
BM9001
17
20
6.00
every 1 km L 1360
L
L 1370
XX 50
L 1350
L4
17
L
00
L
1
0
13
4
L 17
L 1511
L 1320
Followed Survey Regulations
30
5.50 30
L 17
340
Pulau
Pinang XIX
1976 and other related interim
L1
L 1310
L7
001
instructions ( 0.003 K ) *
00
13
5.00
L 1200
XVI
L7
XVIII
002
L 1201
New vertical datum, PMGVD XVII
L 7005
500
4.50
20
L1
based on 1984-93 tidal
L1
BM
06
L1
L 594
10
L 130
02
observation at Port Kelang *
74
0
L5
L 604
L1
4.00 XV
030
L5
XIII
92
L
L 590
57 0
L 10
L 10 6 50
Consists of 113 lines with 5443 50 L
0
10
XIV L 560
58
L
2
XII L 568 L 56
BMs in 22 loops 3.50 XI
70
X
L 582
L 1094
L1
L 556
L5
L 1098
04
0
VIII IX
L 352
L 24 L 1090
Used 3 techniques: L1
L 52
6
3.00
09
L
L 354
10
L1
L 50
Conventional -
84
7 lines L 1080
L2
L4 VII
L 310
BM0133
L
VI L1
Digital
10
- 46 09
82
2
L4
28 L3
0
2.50 LL
2 L 200 IV
38
Motorised - 60 V
L 44
Line Distance L9
L42
L10 L4
L11 III 00 L 801
1
BM0331
70
Digital 39 2333km
L
L4
2.00 L 803
Connections made to 10 Tide

80
L
2 L 1140 L 1100
Conventional 7 418km 49 94
90
BM0333 4
L
7
L
II
Gauge stations (blue triangles) I
L 905
L9 J0151
20
0
Motorised 42 2135km
12
L9
0 01
L1
L 96
1.50 J0700 L 903
88 4886km
115 SINGAPURA
99.50 100.00 100.50 101.00 101.50 102.00 102.50 103.00 103.50 104.00
Tanda Aras Piawai (SBM)
Alloy Screw Access Cover
152.4 mm
JABATAN UKUR DAN
101.6 mm PEMETAAN MALAYSIA
20 "
BATU ARAS
Water S0001
Brass bolt access
Steel rod Brass bolt 20 "
withwith screw
screw capcap outlet
Concrete mix Brass Plate

Concrete mix
Steel
Steel pipe
pipe
(70 mm)
Bedrock
Standard Bench Mark Brass Plug
IBM adalah tanda aras yang terdapat di junction point dan dalam bandar
Ditutup dengan plet besi
Mempunyai asas konkrit yang kukoh
Ditanam pada sela 5 km

116
Tanda Aras (BM)
IBM adalah tanda aras yang paling banyak terdapat
Monumen boleh dilihat, 1 kaki diatas permukaan tanah

Mempunyai asas konkrit yang kukoh
Ditanam pada sela 1 km

117
VI-IV: MyGEOID
In 2002-2003: Department of Surveying and Mapping Malaysia (DSMM) has
undertaken the Airborne Gravity Survey and Geoid Determination Project for
the whole of the Sabah-Sarawak and Peninsular Malaysia area. The total area
covered by the airborne gravity survey project is approximately 350,000 square
kilometers.
Airborne gravity survey

Airborne gravimeter and
GPS equipments
118
Flight lines showing airborne

gravity survey in Sabah/Sarawak
and Peninsular Malaysia (color
coding indicate different flying
altitude above the ground in meter)
119
MyGeoid: 2003
Reference Ellipsoid: GRS80
Accuracy: 5 cm
Final gravimetric geoid for the

Sabah-Sarawak region
Contour Interval = 2 meter
Final gravimetric geoid for the

Peninsular Malaysia region
Contour Interval = 0.2 meter
120
GPS LEVELLING: determination of MSL height without levelling
MSL height can be derived from the ellipsoidal heights using the
following formula:
H=hN accurate to 5cm
Where
H = Orthometric / MSL height derived from GPS/MyGeoid
h = Ellipsoidal (GPS) height
N = Geoid height (based on MyGeoid) 121
VI-IV: Marine Geodetic Infrastructure
122
Project is planned by JUPEM for 2011-2015:
Marking and positioning of islands within Malaysian Waters

Airborne gravity and magnetic survey over Malaysian waters
Determination of precise marine geoid
Seabed topography survey for Malaysian Territorial Waters
Development of a Marine Geodetic Database
Marine Geodetic Platform Coral island in South China Sea

VII. OVERVIEW OF MODERN SPACE GEODETIC TECHNIQUES
123
Satellite Infrastructure for Geospatial
Apps
CHAMP GRACE-1/2 GOCE Geoeye, etc DigitalGlobe sats
Topex/Pos. JASON-1 JASON-2 COSMO-Skymed TanDEM-X
Envisat COSMIC-1/2 Met sats Razaksat DMC sats

COMPASS
ERS-1/2 Landsat, NOAA sats, etc 124

125

Introduction To Geodesy: Lecture Notes

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Introduction to Geodesy

PM. Dr.Kamaluddin Hj.Talib (JSUG, FSPU, UiTM)

I. Earth Structure and Plate Tectonics

II. Geodesy: General Background

III. Earths Surface Representation

EARTH AS PART OF THE PLANETARY SYSTEM

Uranus Saturn Jupiter

The Blue Planet:

6 A cross section through Earth

The Crust: is the thin, relatively lightweight outermost rigid

The Mantle: is the layer beneath the crust, composes 68% of

The Core: is the Earths innermost layer. Consists mainly of

The principle of buoyancy or isostasy.

Earthquakes events worldwide (January 1977 through December 1986) showing

The major lithospheric plates, showing their directions of relative

Lateral movement at transform boundaries causes shear, compression at convergent

The breakup of Pangaea shown in five

PLATE TECTONICS: The breakup of Pangaea

Aceh Earthquake and Tsunami

Surveying and mapping involves:

size and shape of the Earth

Geodesy is a dynamic application of scientific methods in support of

Geodesy is the discipline that deals with the

The three pillars of geodesy are:

THE THREE PILLARS OF GEODESY

Geokinematics: measuring the geometric shape of the Earths

Earth Rotation: monitoring the variations of the Earths rotation

Gravity Field: determining and monitoring the Earths gravity

has been around since approximately 500 BC, not

The world, according to chart from the third century B.C.E.

GRACE Twin Satellites Gravity Mission 28

Hard Labour Digging Tunnel Digging Machine 30

GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM (GPS)

The GPS constellation of satellites consists of at least 24 satellites 21

GPS HAS GPS Nominal Constellation

The computer at the control center

Geodetic Issues in Applying GPS Technology:

Geodetic Issues in Other Geomatic Disciplines:

Control network establishment

Geodesy provides the theoretical background to GPS surveying 38

Cadastral Title Plan (PA) Based On

TOPOGRAPHICAL MAPPING: WP LABUAN

Marine GIS Layers

PROPERLY DEFINED GEODETIC DATUM

Land, Maritime and Aircraft Navigation:

Present day plate tectonics in South East Asia. 43

Projected sea level rise (5 m) for Southeast Asia and

BASE MAP (NDCDB/GDM2000)

Geoid representation from

a For a circle (or

Radius of Curvature Formula

Note: If a=b, the M=N=R=a at any latitude 55

4) The ellipsoid can be further simplified into a sphere. To define a

Geoid coincides with the mean-sea-level

3D Cartesian Coordinates, X and Y and Z

The Z-axis is pointed towards the mean north pole. The

The direction of the X, Y, Z axes are determined by the

The origin is at the center of the Earth.

EARTH CENTERED EARTH

IERS (International Earth

Geodetic Coordinates - Longitude and

Latitude and longitude are collectively known as geographic coordinates.

a : the semi-major axis of the reference ellipsoid;