INTERNATIONAL STYLE

De Stijl, World wars & architecture, Nazi Architecture

 INTRODUCING MODERNISM
1857 British Impose Power & Superiority in India post the First War of
Independence
1870s Foundations of Modern Movement
1880 Art Nouveau Development in Cities Brussles, Turin, Barcelona & Milan
1837-1901 Victorian Period, Impressionism begins
1907 Deutcher Werkbund founded, Cubism
1910 END OF EDWARDIAN ERA
1914 WWI Begins (End of Imperialism)
1917 De Stijl (Piet Mondrian)
1920 WWI Ends
1922 Joseph Stalin appointed General Secretary of the Central Committee of Communist
Party of Soviet Union
1920s ART DECO
1933 Hitler appointed as Chancellor (rise of Nazi power)
 Chronological context
MAJOR in Architecture
MOVES
- Modernism to Postmodernism -
1890s 1900s 1910s 1920s 1930s 1940s 1950s 1960s 1970s 1980s 1990s

First generation Second generation Third generation

modernists modernists modernists

The pioneers of modernism. These were the architects of high These were the architects of
They each treated form, space, modernism- the universal Postmodernism.
structure, materials and ornament in International Style- as well as the They reacted against the orthodoxy of
novel ways. fashionable Art Deco period. high modernism.

Peter Behrens - Berlin Walter Gropius Frank Gehry

Auguste Perret - Paris Le Corbusier Philip Johnson

C. R. Mackintosh - Glasgow Mies van der Rohe Charles Moore

Otto Wagner - Vienna Gerrit Reitveld I. M. Pei

Adolf Loos - Vienna William Van Allen Michael Greaves

Louis Sullivan - Chicago Napier Art Deco architects Louis Kahn

Frank Lloyd Wright - Chicago and mid-western states of USA Robert Venturi
 INTRODUCING THE SECOND MODERNS (1910-40)

MOVEMENTS International Style (early 1900s),

Frank Lloyd Wright (1867-1959) Prairie Houses (Robie House)

Trinity Chapel, Oak Park
Taliesen
Imperial Hotel, Tokyo
Usnonian Houses (Falling Waters)
Johnson Wax Building

Le Corbusier (1870-1933) Planning private residences influenced Modern architects

Towards a New Architecture, The Radiant City and Functional City,
Villa Le Lac and The Domino House, Le Modular

Gerrit Rietveld (1888-1964)- Schroder House

Red and Blue Chair
Worked with Theo Van Doesberg in Amsterdam

Modernism Constructivism, Memorials, Gigantism, Back To Traditions

 FRANK LLOYD WRIGHT (1867 1959)

Wright studied at the University of

Wisconsin at Madison, where he undertook
engineering courses in the absence of
architecture as discipline (1885-86)

Image Source: www.archdaily.com [ONLINE]

He moved to Chicago in 1887, to work with
architect J.L. Silsbee, where he picked up the
skill of fluid sketching

Worked with Adler & Sullivan, chief assistant

to Sullivan (1889- 1893) where he learnt most
of his skills and started his own practice in
1893

He is known as the father of American

Domestic Architecture
 FRANK LLOYD WRIGHT - SERIES OF EVENTS
1867 Born at Spring Green, Wisconsin,
1886 Started his architectural career in Chicago at the age of 19 in the firm of J.
Lyman Silsbee (one year before joining Adler and Sullivan)
1909 Due to the scandal of leaving his wife and children for the wife of one of his
clients, Frank Lloyd Wright has difficulties in securing new clients and closes
his firm in Oak Park, Chicago.
1910-12 Wright travels Europe with Mrs. Cheney while working on having his
portfolio and writings published.
1916-21 After the untimely death of Mrs. Cheney in Spring Green, Wisconsin,
Frank Lloyd Wright moves to Japan where he had several commissions.
The most notable is The Imperial Hotel in Tokyo.
1922 Returns to the USA. Designs four houses in California, and several apartment
complexes and resorts. The latter are never built because of the 1929 Crash.
1932 With his third wife, Oliganna Hinzenberg, Wright starts the Taliesin Fellowship
with 23 apprentices.
 EARLY AMERICAN MODERNISM PRAIRIE HOUSES
PRAIRIE HOUSES were characterized by low, horizontal lines that were meant to
blend with the flat landscape around them.
Typically, vertical elements rise through horizontal planes (Husser House, Chicago,
1899); interior spaces flare from a central chimney mass (Willitts House, Highland Park,
1900-1902); low spaces rise into a high space that is carved into a second story
(Roberts House, River Forest, 1908).
Consisted of broad open spaces instead of strictly defined rooms, and deliberately
blurred the distinction between interior space and the surrounding terrain.
Radical approach to building modern homes: Utilizing mass-produced materials
&equipment, Prairie architects discarded elaborate compartmentalization & detailing
for bold, plain walls, roomy family living areas, and perimeter heating below broad
glazed areas.
 FRANK LLOYD WRIGHT PRAIRIE HOUSES
Image Source: flwright.org/researchexplore/wrightbuildings/williamwinslowhouse [ONLINE]

Winslow House (1893-94), River Forest, Illinois; (Chicago Years)

 FRANK LLOYD WRIGHT PRAIRIE HOUSES
Image Source: http://www.architakes.com/?p=6596 [ONLINE]

Winslow House (1893-94),

River Forest, Illinois
 FRANK LLOYD WRIGHT
Image Source: flwright.org/researchexplore/wrightbuildings/francisapartments [ONLINE]

Francis Apartment building (1895), Chicago River Forest, Illinois; (Chicago Years)
Demolished 1971
Image Source: flwright.org/ [ONLINE] FRANK LLOYD WRIGHT

Frank Lloyd Wright Home (1895), Oak Park, Illinois; (Chicago Years)
 FRANK LLOYD WRIGHT
Image Source: flwright.org/researchexplore/wrightbuildings/francisapartments [ONLINE]

Expansion of the Frank Lloyd Wright Home (1895), Oak Park, Illinois; (Chicago Years)
 FRANK LLOYD WRIGHT
Image Source: www.ncmodernist.org [ONLINE]

Isidore Heller House (1896), Chicago, Illinois; (Chicago Years)

 FRANK LLOYD WRIGHT
Image Source: www.loc.gov [ONLINE]

Isidore Heller House (1896), Chicago, Illinois; (Chicago Years)

 FRANK LLOYD WRIGHT

Image Source: www.flwright.org [ONLINE]

thearchitectshouldplacehimselfinan
environmentthatconspirestodevelopthe
bestthereisinhim.Thefirstrequisiteisa
placefittedandadaptedtobeprotected
andsetasidefromthedistractionsofthe
busycity.

Oak Park Studio for Frank Lloyd Wright

(1899), Chicago, Illinois; (Chicago Years)
 FRANK LLOYD WRIGHT
Image Source: www.ncmodernist.org [ONLINE]

Frank Thomas House (1901), Oak Park, Illinois; MATURE PRAIRIE STYLE
 ART NOUVEAU in USA FL WRIGHT

Image Source: www.panoramio.com [ONLINE]

Arthur Heurtley House (1902), Chicago
 ART NOUVEAU in USA FL WRIGHT

Image Source: commons.wikimedia.org [ONLINE]

Arthur Heurtley House (1902), Chicago
 FRANK LLOYD WRIGHT
Image Source: http://ww1.buffnet.net/ [ONLINE]

Larkin Administration building (1904), Buffalo; CUBISM & MINIMALISM

 FRANK LLOYD WRIGHT
Image Source: abuildingaday.tumblr.com [ONLINE]

Rookery Building Daniel H. Burnham and John Wellborn Root Frank Lloyd Wright redesigned
lobby (1905)
 ART NOUVEAU in USA FL WRIGHT

Image Source: www.flwright.org [ONLINE]

Image Source: www.pinterest.com [ONLINE]

Image Source: www.pinterest.com [ONLINE]

Rookery Building Daniel H. Burnham and John Wellborn Root Frank Lloyd Wright redesigned
lobby (1905)
 Image Source: http://www.flwright.org/researchexplore/unitytemple [ONLINE]

Unity Temple (1905), Oak Park, Illinois; CUBIST ? STYLE

FRANK LLOYD WRIGHT
 FRANK LLOYD WRIGHT

Unity Temple (1905-1908), Oak Park, Illinois; CUBIST ? STYLE

 FRANK LLOYD WRIGHT
Image Source: http://www.flwright.org/researchexplore/unitytemple [ONLINE]

Unity Temple (1905-08), Oak Park, Illinois; CUBIST ? STYLE

 FRANK LLOYD WRIGHT

Frederick C. Robie House (1909), Chicago, Illinois; MATURE PRAIRIE STYLE; CUBISM
 FRANK LLOYD WRIGHT ROBIE HOUSE 1908 - 1910

Frederick C. Robie House (1909), Chicago, Illinois; MATURE PRAIRIE STYLE

 FRANK LLOYD WRIGHT
Image Source: www.steinerag.com [ONLINE]

Frederick C. Robie House (1909), Chicago, Illinois; MATURE PRAIRIE STYLE

 FRANK LLOYD WRIGHT
Image Source: prairie-school.tumblr.com [ONLINE]

1909-1910- Traveled to Europe working on the publication his Wasmuth Portfolio, a

substantial monograph of his projects, mostly designed in his Oak Park Studio.
 FRANK LLOYD WRIGHT
Image Source: prairie-school.tumblr.com [ONLINE]

Taliesin East (1911, 1914, 1927), Spring Green, Wisconsin

 FRANK LLOYD WRIGHT
Image Source: www.savewright.org [ONLINE]

Taliesin East (1911, 1914, 1927), Spring Green, Wisconsin

 FRANK LLOYD WRIGHT

Taliesin West (Fellowship established 1932), Scottsdale, Arizona

 FRANK LLOYD WRIGHT

Taliesin West (Fellowship established 1932), Scottsdale, Arizona

Millard House (1932), Pasadena, California
ART NOUVEAU in USA FL WRIGHT

Image Source: http://millardhouse.com/mhouse237/wp-content/uploads/2012/11/a_splash-2.jpg [ONLINE]

Millard House (1932), Pasadena, California
ART NOUVEAU in USA FL WRIGHT

Image Source: http://millardhouse.com/mhouse237/wp-content/uploads/2012/11/a_splash-1.jpg [ONLINE]

 LATE AMERICAN MODERNISM USONIAN HOUSES

American : Usonian
Designed on a module system - originally a 2 x 4 grid and a vertical grid of
1-1. These were the size of 1/2 sheet plywood, and the dimensions of the
slats and battens that made up the wall.
Deep eaves - cantilevered roofs that overhung and sheltered the walls,
shading the house and clearstory windows from the afternoon sun
Open plan - pioneered the connecting of the kitchen, dining room, and
living room. This reflected the need for the lady of the house to be
connected to the activity of the house, not hidden away.
Connection to nature - shielded house from public, but opened up the
private side to the gardens and light, blending indoors and outdoors,
continuing the design of the house to the exterior.
 LATE AMERICAN MODERNISM USONIAN HOUSES
Efficient design of bedrooms and bathrooms - bedrooms were
modest in size, but contained spacious closets. Bathroom plumbing
was stacked and located adjacent to kitchen to economize on
material cost.

Passive heating - use of concrete floors as thermal mass and large

windows help regulate heating and cooling. Embedded plumbing
pipes under foundations to provide radiant heating.

Economical materials - used materials that were inexpensive. Early

models with concrete, brick, and plywood, later with local stones and
CMU blocks. Avoided ornamentation, instead let the natural
properties of the materials provide the details of the house
 USONIAN HOUSES
Image Source: wrightinalabama.com [ONLINE]

out of the ground and into the light!

Rosenbaum House (1939), Florence, Alabama ; USONIAN STYLE

 USONIAN HOUSES
1939 1948
Image Source: wrightinalabama.com [ONLINE]

Rosenbaum House (1939), Florence, Alabama ; USONIAN STYLE

 USONIAN HOUSES
Image Source: wrightinalabama.com [ONLINE]

Rosenbaum House (1939), Florence, Alabama ; USONIAN STYLE

 FRANK LLOYD WRIGHT

Kaufmann House (1933-35), Pittsburgh; USONIAN STYLE, JAPANESE INFLUENCE

 FRANK LLOYD WRIGHT

Kaufmann House (1933-35), Pittsburgh; USONIAN STYLE

 FRANK LLOYD WRIGHT

Charles Mason House (1941), Wausau, Wisconsin ; USONIAN STYLE

 FRANK LLOYD WRIGHT

Charles Mason House (1941), Wausau, Wisconsin ; USONIAN STYLE

 FRANK LLOYD WRIGHT
Image Source: www.greatbuildings.com [ONLINE]

Johnson Wax building (1936), Racine, Wisconsin

 FRANK LLOYD WRIGHT

Johnson Wax building (1936), Racine, Wisconsin

 THE INTERNATIONAL STYLE

AStylethatemergedinEurope
andUSAduringtheearly20th
century(1920s)thatlatertook
overasthestyleofthemid19th
centuryworldover.

SEAGRAMS BUILDING,
CHICAGO (1956-58),
by Mies van der Rohe & Philip
Johnson
 THE INTERNATIONAL STYLE

Image Source: https://www.invaluable.co.uk/auction-lot/architecture-hitchcock-henry-russell-and-phi-4-c-

The term International Style was first
used in 1932 by Henry-Russell
Hitchcock and Philip Johnson in their
essay titled The International Style:
Architecture Since 1922, which
served as a catalog for an
architectural exhibition held at the
Museum of Modern Art.

8654f45bf8 [ONLINE]
International Style, it was described
by Johnson as probably the first
fundamentally original and widely
distributed style since the Gothic.
 THE INTERNATIONAL STYLE

International Exhibition [MoMA Exh. #15, February 9-March 23, 1932]

Model of Le Corbusiers Villa Savoye from Modern Architecture:

Image Source: http://www.archdaily.com/409918/ad-classics-modern-architecture-international-exhibition-

philip-johnson-and-henry-russell-hitchcock/51f822b8e8e44ef7d4000151-ad-classics-modern-architecture-
international-exhibition-philip-johnson-and-henry-russell-hitchcock-image [ONLINE]
 CHARACTERISTICS OF THIS STYLE
The notion that "Form follows function", a dictum originally expressed by Frank
Lloyd Wright's early mentor Louis Sullivan, meaning that the result of design
should derive directly from its purpose. The building must possess functional
beauty.

Simplicity and clarity of forms and elimination of "unnecessary detail

Visual expression of structure (as opposed to the hiding of structural elements)

The related concept of "Truth to materials", meaning that the true nature or
natural appearance of a material ought to be seen rather than concealed or
altered to represent something else.

Use of industrially-produced materials; adoption of the machine aesthetic.

Particularly in International Style modernism, a visual emphasis on horizontal

and vertical lines.
 INTERNATIONAL STYLE
a radical simplification of form
a rejection of ornament
and adoption of glass, steel and concrete as preferred materials

HONEST ECONOMICAL UTILITATRIAN

The International Style grew out of the work of a small group of brilliant and
original architects in the 1920s who went on to achieve great influence in their
field: included Walter Gropius and Ludwig Mies van der Rohe in Germany and
the United States, J.J.P. Oud in the Netherlands, Le Corbusier in France, and
Richard Neutra and Philip Johnson in the United States.

In the 1930s and 40s the International Style spread from its base in Germany
and France to North and South America, Scandinavia, Britain, and Japan. The
clean, efficient, geometric qualities of the style came to form the basis of the
architectural vocabulary of the skyscraper in the United States in the 1950-60s.
LE CORBUSIER (1887-1965)
 INTRODUCING LE CORBUSIER
1887 Born in La Chaux-de-Fonds, Switzerland to Engraver & enamalist (watches)
1900 Enters the cole dArt in La Chaux-de-Fonds, tutored by Charles LEplattenier in
history, drawing & naturalist aesthetics of Art Nouveau
1907 Travels extensively through central Europe & Mediterrenean apprenticing under
rationalist Auguste Perret (pioneer of RCC construction) &
Peter Behrens (Berlin 1910-11)
1912 Returns to hometown to set up own practice & to teach at cole dArt
1915 Studies at the Bibliothque Nationale in Paris, begins development of Dom-ino
system with Max Du Bois.
1917 Moves to Paris & sets up practice
1922 Opens Architectural Office with his cousin Pierre Jeanneret
1927 Designs two houses in the Werkbund exhibition in Stuttgart
1928 Founding member of CIAM, Villa Savoye in Poissy (192831)
1933 Attends the fourth CIAM conference on The Functional City, documents the
proceedings which came to be known as Athens Charter (published 1943)
LE CORBUSIER

THE MODULAR MAN

 LE CORBUSIER

The transparency of buildings construction (called the honest

expression of structure), and acceptance of industrialized mass-
production techniques contributed to the international style's
design philosophy.

The machine aesthetic, and logical design decisions leading to

support building function were used by the International
architect to create buildings reaching beyond historicism.
 LE CORBUSIER
Image Source: www.fondationlecorbusier.fr [ONLINE]

Villa Jeanneret-Perret (Maison Blanche, 1912), La Chaux-de-Fonds

 LE CORBUSIER
Image Source: www.flickr.com [ONLINE]

La Scala Cinema (1916), based on plans by Ren Chapallaz, La Chaux-de-Fonds

 LE CORBUSIER
Image Source: interieurites.com [ONLINE]

La chemine (1918), Le Corbusier au Centre Pompidou

 LE CORBUSIER
Image Source: iwww.360inspiration.nl [ONLINE]

Villa Le Lac (Petite Maison) (1923-24), Corseaux

 LE CORBUSIER

In his first book, Towards a

New Architecture (1923), Le
Corbusier announced the
five points of a new
architecture:

Free standing supports

(pilotis)

Image Source: www.flickr.com [ONLINE]

The roof garden
The ribbon window
The free plan
The freely composed facade
 LE CORBUSIER

Ville Radieuse (The Radiant City) (1924)

 images.adsttc.com/media/images/51fa/e7db/e8e4/4ea2/b000/0015/large_jpg/le_corbusier_ville_radieuse.jpg?
LE CORBUSIER & THE RADIANT CITY

Designed to contain effective means of

transportation, as well as an
abundance of green space and
sunlight, Le Corbusiers city of the
future would not only provide
residents with a better lifestyle, but
would contribute to creating a better
society. Though radical, strict and
nearly totalitarian in its order,
symmetry & standardization, Le
Corbusiers proposed principles had an
extensive influence on modern urban
planning and led to the development

1375397846 [ONLINE]
of new high-density housing

Image Source:
typologies.
 LE CORBUSIER
Image Source: iculturevisuelle.org [ONLINE]

Pavillon de lEsprit Nouveau (1925), Paris Exposition

 LE CORBUSIER
Image Source: www.studyblue.com [ONLINE]

Pavillon de lEsprit Nouveau (1925), Paris Exposition

 Image Source: www.pinterestblue.com [ONLINE]

Villa Cook (1926-27), Boulogne-sur-Seine

LE CORBUSIER

Image Source: thecharnelhouse.org [ONLINE] Image Source: www.fondationlecorbusier.fr [ONLINE]

 LE CORBUSIER
Image Source: www.studyblue.com [ONLINE]

Cit de refuge (1929-33), Paris; homeless shelter for the Salvation Army
 LE CORBUSIER & THE ATHENS CHARTER

This document remains one of the most controversial one ever

produced by CIAM. The charter effectively committed CIAM to
rigid functional cities, with citizens to be housed in high,
widely-spaced apartment blocs.
Green belts would separate each zone of the city.

The Charter was not actually published until 1943, and its
influence was profound on public authorities in post-war
Europe.
 GERMAN DADA WW I & WEIMAR REPUBLIC
Image Source: madamepickwickartblog.com [ONLINE]

Eclipse of the Sun, (1928);

George Grosz
 INTERNATIONAL STYLE DE STIJL
Image Source: www.studyblue.com [ONLINE]

Everyformcanbe
representedbysmall
rightangles(abstract
geometricalorder)&
everycolourderived
fromprimarycolours

Study for an apartment Block (1923); Theo van Doesburg, Cornelius van Eesteren;
DE STIJL
 INTERNATIONAL STYLE DE STIJL

Image Source: commons.wikimedia.org [ONLINE]

Stijl vol 04 nr 09: Periodical published

between 1919-1932 which influenced the
movement
 INTERNATIONAL STYLE DE STIJL
Image Source: www.proprofs.com [ONLINE]

Schroder House (1924), Utrecht, by Gerrit Thomas Rietveld (1888-1964), DE STIJL

 INTERNATIONAL STYLE DE STIJL
Image Source: https://www.britannica.com/biography/Gerrit-Thomas-Rietveld [ONLINE]

Red-and-blue armchair (1918); by Gerrit Thomas Rietveld DE STIJL

 INTERNATIONAL STYLE CONSTRUCTIVISM
Image Source: www.pinterest.com [ONLINE]

White on White(1918), Kazimir Malevich (1878-1935); SUPREMATIST Composition

 INTERNATIONAL STYLE CONSTRUCTIVISM
Image Source: www.pinterest.comg [ONLINE]

Monument to the Third International (1919), Vladimir Tatlin; CONSTRUCTIVIST

 INTERNATIONAL STYLE GERMANY
Image Source: architectuul.com [ONLINE]

The Weissenhof Estate (1927), Stuttgart; Mies van der Rohe; NEUES BAUEN
 INTERNATIONAL STYLE GERMANY
Image Source: Hoffmann & Meuser (2008), pp38

The Frankfurt Kitchen (1928);

Margarete Schutte-Lihotzky; NEUES
BAUEN
Compactin21Sqft,oneofthefirst
modernfittedmassproducedmodels
 Image Source: www.pinterest.coms [ONLINE]

Narkomfin Housing (192829), Moscow; Moisei Ginzburg

INTERNATIONAL STYLE GERMANY

Image Source: www.narkomfin.net [ONLINE]

 INTERNATIONAL STYLE GERMANY
Image Source: www.narkomfin.net [ONLINE]

Palace of Soviets (193132); Le Corbusier and Pierre Jeanneret

 INTERNATIONAL STYLE GERMANY
Image Source: www.narkomfin.net [ONLINE]

Palace of Soviets (193132); Boris Iofan; winner of the Palace of Soviets Competition
 Image Source: marxists.org/subject/art/visual_arts/painting/exhibits/socialist-realism.htm [ONLINE]

Happy Reuniting (1950s), Deryazhny Fedor Ivanovich (Ukraine)

MODERNISM SOCIALIST REALISM
 MODERNISM MEMORIALS

Tannenberg Memorial (1926), Poland; Walter & Johannes Kruger

 MODERNISM MEMORIALS
Image Source:forum.axishistory.com [ONLINE]

Tannenberg Memorial (1935), Poland; Changed to orders of Hitler

 MODERNISM MEMORIALS
Image Source: www.gettyimages.com [ONLINE]

Tannenberg Memorial (1935), Poland; Changed to orders of Hitler

 MODERNISM MEMORIALS
Image Source: www.dailymail.co.uk [ONLINE]

Memorial for Battle of Somme (1928-32), Thiepval; Edwin Lutyens

 MODERNISM NEUES BAUEN

Neues Bauen (New Building)

covers the spectrum of
Expressionism to New
Objectivity in Europe

Technical faults in Modernist

Architecture: flat roofs caved
in and leaked, whitewash
peeled off & metal windows
rusted as opposed to pitched
roof, stone & wooden windows

Moving Forward into

TRADITIONAL
 MODERNISM GIGANTISM
Image Source: en.wikipedia.org [ONLINE]

New Reich Chancellery (1936-39), Berlin; Albert Speer

 MODERNISM GIGANTISM
Image Source: en.wikipedia.org [ONLINE]

New Reich Chancellery (1936-39), Berlin; war affected building demolished in 1945
 MODERNISM GIGANTISM
Image Source: www.spainisculture.com [ONLINE]

Recreated Spanish Pavillion (1937), Barcelona; Josep Lluis Sert

Pavillion for International Exhibition Paris
Image Source: librarydisplays.wolfsonian.org [ONLINE]
MODERNISM GIGANTISM

Soviet Pavilion (1937), Paris; Boris Iofan

Portfolio for Paris International Exhibition
 MODERNISM GIGANTISM

Image Source: www.moscow-russia-insiders-guide.com [ONLINE]

Soviet Pavilion (1937), Moscow; sculpture

by Vera Moukhina
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Frampton, Kenneth (1980 (1992)). Modern Architecture: A Critical History (3rd Edition
ed.). Thames and Hudson. pp. 210218
Crouch, Christopher. 2000. "Modernism in Art, Design and Architecture", New York:
St. Martins Press
Otto Wagner. Translated by Harry Francis Mallgrave. Modern Architecture: A
Guidebook for His Students to This Field of Art. Getty Center for the History of Art and
the Humanities. 1988.

Colquhoun, Alan. 2002. Modern architecture. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

The Barbican, LeCorbusierattheBarbican:BiographyofCharles-douardJeanneret/
LeCorbusier", Accessed 28 August 2016,
http://www.barbican.org.uk/lecorbusier/resources/biography
http://www.fondationlecorbusier.fr/
http://cal.flwright.org/tours/homeandstudio