Chapter 2 Edited

Chapter 2
Construction Equipments
Characteristics, Uses and
Productivity
Introduction
o Construction Equipment make the
construction jobs easy, safe and quicker.
o Good project management in construction
must ensure the efficient utilization of labor,
material and equipment
o The selection of the appropriate type and size
of construction equipment often affects the
required amount of time and effort and thus
the job-site productivity of a project.
2
Introduction
o Proper use of the appropriate equipment
contributes to economy, quality, safety, speed
and timely completion of a project
o It is therefore important for site managers and
construction planners to be familiar with the
characteristics of the major types of
equipment most commonly used in
construction
3
Introduction
Advantages of equipment utilization
o Increase the rate of output through work
progress with the best effective and efficient
methods.
o Reduce the overall construction costs
especially for large contracts.
o Carry out activities which cannot be done
manually or to do them more economically
and much faster.
4
Introduction
Advantages of equipment utilization
o Eliminate the heavy manual work by human
thus reducing fatigue and eliminates various
other hazards and health issues.
o Maintain the planned rate of production
where there is a shortage of skilled or
unskilled labor.
o Maintain the high quality standards often
required by present-day design and
specifications (technical standards).
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Classification of Construction
Equipments
Depending on the application, construction

machines are classified into various
categories
1. Earth-moving equipment
2. Earth-compacting equipment
3. Hauling equipment
4. Hoisting equipment
6
Equipments
Depending on the application, construction

machines are classified into various categories
5. Conveying equipment
6. Aggregate production equipment
7. Equipments used in Concrete Construction.
8. Pile-driving equipment
7
Equipments
1.Earth Moving Equipments
Definition- Earthwork is a process of moving soil or rock from one
location to the other and processing it so that it meets construction
requirements of location, elevation, density, moisture content, etc.
Selection Criteria for Earthwork Equipments
The selection of earthmoving equipment is mainly
dependent on the following factors:
Quantities of material to be moved
The available time to complete the work
the job conditions
The prevailing soil types,
the swell and compaction factors, etc.
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Equipments
Selection Criteria for Earthwork Equipments
The job conditions include factors such as
availability of loading and dumping area
accessibility of site
traffic flows
weather conditions at site.
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Equipments
In order to plan the number of Earthwork
Equipment needed the planner first determines
the following:
The suitable class of equipment for earthwork-
for example, if the soil to be excavated is loose
and marshy, and bulk excavation is involved In the
project, one may select for a dragline.
The appropriate model of equipment based on
different characteristics such as
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Equipments
payload of bucket and speeds required. For
example, draglines come in different capacities
ranging from 0.38 cum to 3.06 cum ,scrapers in
capacities ranging from 8 cum to 50 cum and so
on.
The number of equipment needed for the
project to carry out the given quantity.
The number of associated equipment required to
support the main equipment.
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General Soil Characteristics
As earthmoving equipments are mostly
related to woks related to soil, Hence,
important aspects of soil shall be understood.
From the characteristics of soils traffic ability,
load ability and volume change are vital for
earthworks.
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General Soil Characteristics

1. Traffic ability: Property of soil that shows the
ability to support repeated traffic load
2. Load ability :Property that shows easiness or
difficulty of excavating and loading
3. Volume change: property related to volumes
of soil sample on different stress or
compaction level.
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Volume Measure
Material volume is defined according to its state
in the earthmoving process.
The three measures of volume are:
BCM (BCY) one cubic meter (yard) of material
as it lies in the natural bank state.
LCM (LCY) one cubic meter (yard) of material
which has been disturbed and has swelled as a
result of movement.
CCM (CCY) one cubic meter (yard) of material
which has been compacted and has become more
dense as a result of compaction.
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Volume Measure
In order to estimate production, the relationships between
bank measure, loose measure, and compacted measure must be
known.
Swell
Swell is the percentage of original volume(cubic meters or
cubic yards) that a material increases when it is removed from
the natural state.
When excavated, the material breaks up into different size
particles that do not fit together, causing air pockets or voids to
reduce the weight per volume.
For example to hold the same weight of one cubic unit of
bank material it takes 30% more volume (1.3 times) after
excavation. (Swell is 30%.)
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Volume Measure
Swell
1 + Swell = __Loose cubic volume for a given weight___

Bank cubic volume for the same given weight
Bank = __Loose__
(1 + Swell)
Loose = Bank X (1 + Swell)
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Volume Measure
Example Problem:
1. If a material swells 20%, how many loose cubic
meters will it take to move 1000 bank cubic meters?
Loose = Bank X (1 + Swell)
1000 BCM X(1 + .2) = 1200 LCM
2. How many bank cubic meters were moved if a
total of 1000 loose cubic meters have been
moved? Swell is 25%.
Bank = Loose (1 + Swell)
= 1000 LCM (1 + .25) = 800 BCM
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Volume Measure
Load Factor
Assume one bank cubic meter of material weighs
3000 kg. Because of material characteristics, this
bank cubic meter swells 30% to 1.3 loose cubic
meters when loaded, with no change in weight. If
this 1.0 bank cubic meter or 1.3 loose cubic meter is
compacted, its volume may be reduced to 0.8
compacted cubic meter, and the weight is still 3000
kg.
Instead of dividing by 1 + Swell to determine bank
volume, the loose volume can be multiplied by the
load factor.
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Volume Measure
Load Factor
If the percent of material swell is known, the load
factor (L.F.) may be obtained by using the following
relationship:
L.F. = ___100%____
100% + % swell
To estimate the machine payload in bank cubic
meter, the volume in loose cubic meter is multiplied
by the load factor:
Load (BCM) = Load (LCM) XL.F.
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Volume Measure
Shrinkage Factor
The ratio between compacted measure and bank
measure is called shrinkage factor (S.F.):
S.F. =Compacted cubic Meters(CCM)
Bank cubic Meters (BCM)
Shrinkage factor is either estimated or obtained from job
plans or specifications which show the conversion from
compacted measure to bank measure.
Shrinkage factor should not be confused with percentage
compaction (used for specifying embankment density,
such as Modified Proctor or CBR).
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Volume Measure
Fill Factor
The percentage of an available volume in a body, bucket, or bowl
that is actually used is expressed as the fill factor.
A fill factor of 87% for a hauler body means that 13% of the rated
volume is not being used to carry material. Buckets often have fill
factors over 100%.
Example Problem:
1. A 14 cubic meter (heaped 2:1) bucket has a 105% fill factor when
operating in a shot sandstone (4125 kg/BCM and a 35% swell).
a) What is the loose density of the material?
b) What is the usable volume of the bucket?
c) What is the bucket payload per pass in BCM?
d) What is the bucket payload per pass in tons?
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Volume Measure
Fill Factor
a. Kg/LCM = Kg/BCM (1 + Swell) = 4125 (1.35)
=3056 kg/LCM
b. LCM = rated LCM X fill factor = 14 X1.05
= 14.7LCM
c. Kgs/pass = volume X density Kg/LCM
= 14.7 X 3056 = 44,923 Kgs
d. BCM/pass = weight density kg/BCM = 44,923 4125
= 10.9 BCM
or bucket LCM from part b (1 + Swell) = 14.7 1.35
= 10.9 BCM
e) tons/pass = kgs 1000 kgs/ton = 44,923 1000
=44.923 tons
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Volume Measure
Fill Factor
Example Problem:
2. Construct a 10,000 compacted cubic Meter (CCM)bridge
approach of dry clay with a shrinkage factor(S.F.) of 0.80
and load factor 0.81. Haul unit is rated 14 loose cubic
meter struck and 20 loose cubic meter heaped.
a) How many bank Meters are needed?
b) How many loads are required?
Solution
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Volume Measure
Fill Factor
Solution
a. S.F. 0.80
BCM =10000
0.8
= 12,500 BCM
b. Load (BCM) = Capacity (LCM) X Load factor (L.F.) = 20 X0.81
= 16.2 BCM/Load
Number of loads required =12,500 BCM
16.2
= 772Loads
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1.1 Hydraulic Excavators

are heavy construction equipment consisting
of a boom, stick, bucket and cab on a rotating
platform (known as the "house"). The house sits
on top of an undercarriage with tracks or
wheels.
Hydraulic Excavators Hydraulic excavators are
designed to excavate below the ground surface
on which the machine rests.
25
The major components of the hydraulic hoe are the
boom, the stick (arm), and the bucket.
Fast-acting, variable-flow hydraulic systems and easy-
to-operate controls give hydraulic excavators high
implement speed and breakout force to excavate a
variety of materials
The hydraulic hoe is ideal for excavating below the
grounds surface on which the machine rests. A large
variety of booms, sticks, buckets, and attachments give
these excavators the versatility to excavate trenches, load
trucks, clean ditches, break up concrete, and install pipes
26
Excavators are also called diggers
Excavators are used in many ways:
a) Digging of trenches, holes, foundations
b) Material handling
c) Brush cutting with hydraulic attachments
d) Forestry work
e) Demolition
27
1.1Hydraulic Excavators
f) Heavy lift, e.g. lifting and placing of pipes
g) Mining, especially, but not only open-pit
mining
h) River dredging
i) Driving piles, in conjunction with a pile driver
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1.11 Hydraulic Excavator selection
Track Vs Wheel
Truck
Unless the application calls for a lot of travel to and from around
the job sites, a track-type excavator could be the better choice.
Track-type excavators provide good traction and flotation in almost
all kinds of underfoot conditions.
Consistently good drawbar power provides excellent
maneuverability.
The tracked undercarriage also provides good over-all stability.
If the job calls for frequent machine repositioning, a track-type
excavator will provide better operating efficiency where raising
and lowering outriggers would take extra time.
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1.11 Hydraulic Excavator selection Track Vs Wheel
Wheel
A machine that can do more than mass excavation and
trenching.
A Wheel Excavator combines traditional excavator features such
as 360 swing, long reach, deep digging depth, high loading
height, high digging forces and high lift capacities, with the
mobility of a wheeled undercarriage.
The rubber tires allow the excavator to travel paved roads, work
in shopping malls, squares, parking lots and other paved areas
without damaging the pavement.
Its mobility allows fast independent travel between jobsites as
well as on the jobsite giving you more job planning flexibility.
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1.11 Excavator selection Track Vs Wheel
Wheel
A machine that can do more than mass excavation and
trenching.
A Wheel Excavator combines traditional excavator features such
as 360 swing, long reach, deep digging depth, high loading
height, high digging forces and high lift capacities, with the
mobility of a wheeled undercarriage.
The rubber tires allow the excavator to travel paved roads, work
in shopping malls, squares, parking lots and other paved areas
without damaging the pavement.
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1.11 Excavator selection Track Vs Wheel
Wheel
The Wheel Excavator is the ideal tool for truck loading in tight
quarters, undercutting concrete or asphalt, patching, shoulder
work, curb and gutter repair, landscaping, spreading top soil,
fine grading, laying pipe, placing manholes or ditch cleaning.
A Wheel Excavator is also an ideal machine in material handling.
It can load or unload trucks and carry loads around the job site.
Stabilizers and a dozer blade can be pinned to the undercarriage
increasing the machines stability during lifting.
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1.13Hydraulic Excavator Earthmoving production
Production is the hourly rate at which material is moved.
Production can be expressed in various units:
Bank Cubic Meters BCM bank m3
Loose Cubic Meters LCM loose m3
Compacted Cubic Meters CCM compacted m3
For most earthmoving and material handling applications,
production is calculated by multiplying the quantity of
material (load) moved per cycle by the number of cycles
per hour.
Production = Load/cycle X Cycles/hour
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1.13 Hydraulic Excavator Earthmoving production
Production = Load/cycle X Cycles/hour
The load can be determined by
1) load weighing
2) load estimating based on machine rating
3) surveyed volume divided by load count
CYCLE TIME ESTIMATING CHARTS
The digging cycle of the excavator is composed of four
segments:
1. Load Bucket
2. Swing Loaded
3. Dump Bucket
4. Swing Empty
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Excavator earthmoving production is dependent on
average bucket payload, average cycle time and job
efficiency.
bucket payload
An excavators bucket payload is actual amount of material
in the bucket on each digging cycle. It is dependent on bucket
size, shape, curl force, and certain soil characteristics, i.e., the
fill factor for the soil.
Buckets are rated on both their struck and heaped
capacities as follows:
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Struck Capacity
Volume actually enclosed inside the outline of the
side plates and rear and front bucket enclosures
without any consideration for any material sup-ported
or carried by the spill plate or bucket teeth.
Heaped Capacity
Volume in the bucket under the strike off plane plus
the volume of the heaped material above the strike
off plane, having an angle of repose of 1:1 with-out
any consideration for any material supported or
carried by the spill plate or bucket teeth.
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If an estimator can accurately predict excavator cycle
time and bucket payload, excavators earthmoving
production can be derived from the following formula.
m3/60min.hr=Cycles/60min/hr. X avg. bucket payload(m3)
m3/60min.hr= 60min/hr. X Avg. bucket payload(m3)
Cycles time-min
Avg. Bucket Payload =Heaped Bucket Capacity X Bucket Fill-
Factor
Actual m3/hr = m3/60 min hr X Job Efficiency Factor
37
Example Problem 1
Excavator have a 3cy bucket is being considered for use on a
project to excavate very hard clay with a swell factor of 35% from
a borrow pit. The clay will be loaded into trucks having a loading
height of 10 ft. The average cycle time for the excavator to load
bucket, swing, dump, return is 20 second., The efficiency factor
is equal to a 50-min/ hour, bucket fill factor for hard clay(80-90%)
What is the estimated production of the excavator in cubic yards
bank measure?
Solution
38
Step 1. Size of bucket, 3cy
Step 2: Bucket fill factor hard clay 80 to 90%; use
average 85%
Step 3. Typical cycle element times: 20 sec
Step 4: Efficiency Factor: 50 min/hour
Step 5: Class of Material, hard clay, swell 35%
Step 6: Excavator Production
3600s/hr.X3CY X 0.85 X (50min) X ___1___
20s/cycle 60min (1+.35)
=283.3bcy/hr
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Example problem 2
Contractor has a job to move 15300 Bm3( 25% swell factor) of wet
sandy loam material in rear dump on-highway trucks which will be
loaded by an excavator. Average face depth will be 2.4 m with 60-90
degree average swing angle. Ten days are available to do the work.
Contractor plans to work 10 hrs/day and estimates a 50 min. work
hour (83% job efficiency). He has two excavators that could be made
available to do the work a 320 with 1.0 m3 bucket or a 330 with 1.9
m3 bucket. Experience has shown that either machine can get its rated
capacity in the sandy loam soil(fill factor=100-110% ). Could this job be
done with either machine or will the 330 have to be used?(use cycle
estimating chart(4-148))and production estimating table(4-151).
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Solution:
The excavator must produce 1900 Lm3/Day (19 100 Lm3 10 Days) which
means the required average hourly rate will be 190 Lm3/60 Min. Hr.(1900
Lm3/Day 10 hrs/day).
Further considering the 83% job efficiency, the excavators capability will
have to be 230 Lm3/50 min hr.
The production estimating table shows that the 320 with a 1.0 m3 bucket
would have to achieve a 17.1 sec. average cycle time to produce the
required190 Lm3/60 min. hr. With job efficiency applied a 15.0 second
average cycle time is required to produce the 230 Lm3/50 min. hr.
The 330 with a 1.9 m3bucket could obtain the same 60 min. hr. production
level with a 35 second average cycle, or 30 second cycles to meet the 50 min.
hr. production requirement.
The cycle times estimating chart shows that the 320 would be working
near its maximum capability to meet the production requirement, where as,
the 330 could handle the job easily. This information can then be weighed
against what else is known about the job (reach requirements, job conditions,
operator ability, etc.) to decide whether or not the larger machine is needed
41
Equipments
Classification of Construction Equipments
1.2 Backhoe
Backhoes are mainly used
a. It is used to excavate below the natural surface on which it
rests.
b. Generally used to excavate trenches, pits for basements.
c. and also for grading works, which requires precise control of
depths.
d. to clean up construction areas, to dig holes in the ground,
e. remove deep roots from trees.
f. It can exert high tooth pressures and hence can excavate stiff
material which normally cannot be excavated by dragline.
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Chapter 2

Depending on the application, construction

Depending on the application, construction

General Soil Characteristics

1 + Swell = Loose cubic volume for a given weight_

1.1 Hydraulic Excavators

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