Electrical Energy Universidad

Conversion and de Oviedo

Power Systems

Power Electronic Devices

Semester 1

Power Supply
Lecturer: Javier Sebastin
Systems
 Research Group
Power supply Systems
(Sistemas Electrnicos de Alimentacin)

Javier Sebastin

Dr. Electrical Engineer (Ingeniero Industrial)

Full professor
Room 3.1.21
Edificio n 3, Campus Universitario de Viesques
33204 Gijn (Asturias). Spain

Phone (direct): 985 18 20 85

Phone (secretary): 985 18 20 87
Fax: 985 18 21 38
E-mail: sebas@uniovi.es
Web: http://www.unioviedo.es/sebas/

2
 Outline

Review of the physical principles of operation of semiconductor

devices.
Thermal management in power semiconductor devices.
Power diodes.
Power MOSFETs.
The IGBT.
High-power, low-frequency semiconductor devices (thyristors).

3
Outline

Review of physical principles

of semiconductors
Power electronics devices

G
S

4
 Previous requirements
Basic electromagnetic theory.
Basic circuit theory.
The operation of basic electronics devices in circuits. The
student must understand the behaviour of the following
electronics devices in simple circuits:
Diodes.
Bipolar Junction Transistors, both PNP and NPN types.
Field Effect Transistor, especially enhancement-mode Metal-
Oxide-Semiconductor Field Effect Transistors (MOSFETs),
both in N-channel- and P-channel types.
5
Electrical Energy Universidad
Conversion and de Oviedo
Power Systems

Lesson 1 - Review of the physical principles

of operation of semiconductor devices
Semester 1 - Power Electronics Devices

6
 Outline
Review of the physical principles of operation of semiconductor
devices:
Basic concepts about semiconductor materials: band diagrams, intrinsic
and extrinsic semiconductors, mechanisms for electric current conduction
and continuity equation and its use in simple steady-state and transient
situations.

Basic concepts about PN junctions: Equilibrium conditions, forward- and

reverse-biased operation and calculation of the current flow when biased.

Reverse-biased voltage limits of PN junctions.

PIN junctions.

Conductivity modulation.

Transient effects in PN junctions in switching-mode operation.

Metal-semiconductor junctions. 7
 Energy level in a semiconductor as a function
of inter-atomic spacing

At 0 K, empty
Energy of electrons

- -

- - - -
- -
- -
Inter-atomic spacing

Actual spacing At 0 K, filled

8
Concept of band diagram
Empty at 0 K

Energy of electrons
4 states/atom Conduction band

Eg Band gap

- - 4 electrons/atom
Valence band
- -

Material Eg [eV]
Ge 0.66 Filled at 0 K
Si 1.1
4H - SiC 3.26
GaN 3.39
9
 Band structure for insulators,
semiconductors and metals at 0 K

Conduction band Conduction band

Conduction band

Band gap Eg Band gap Eg Overlap

Valence band Valence band Valence band

Semiconductor Insulator Metals

Eg=0.5-2 eV Eg= 5-10 eV No Eg

10
 Band structure for semiconductors at room
temperature. Concept of hole
- -
Conduction band
- -
Si - Si -
- - -
Eg - -
- -
+ - - -
Si
+ -
Valence band
- Si -
Semiconductor
- -
Eg=0.5-2 eV Visualization using the bonding model

Some electrons jump from the valence band to the conduction band. They are
charge carriers because they can move from one atom to another.
The empty state in the valence band is referred to as a hole.
The holes have positive charge. They are also charge carriers. 11
 Concepts of generation and recombination

Generation Recombination
-
Eg Eg
- -
+ - - - + - -
- - - -
- - -
Si - Si - Si -
-
Si -
- - - - - -
- -
+
-
-
Si
-
Si
- + -
Si Si
- - - -
- - - - 12
 Why both holes and electrons are electric charge carriers?

In general, there will be electric current due to both electrons and holes
Example: when there is an electric field in the semiconductor lattice

+++++++
-
-
- - -
- - - - -

-
Si - Si - Si - Si
- -- -
-
- -
- - - -
+
-
- - - - -
Si - Si - Si - Si

-
-

+
- -

-
-

- 13
 How many electrons and holes are there in 1 cm3?

The number of these electrons and holes strongly depend on both Eg and the
room temperature. It is called intrinsic concentration and it is represented as
ni.
The concentration of electrons in the conduction band (negative charge
carriers) is represented as n. The concentration of holes in the valence band
(positive charge carriers) is represented as p.
Obviously n = p = ni in this type of semiconductors (intrinsic semiconductors)
Some examples of the value of ni at room temperature:

Material Eg [eV] ni [elect./cm3]

Ge 0.66 2.41013
Si 1.1 1.51010 Taking into account the number of bonds
GaAs 1.4 1.8106 of valence band electrons in 1cm3 of
silicon, only one bond is broken for each
4H - SiC 3.26 8.210-9
amount of 1013 unbroken bonds (at room
GaN 3.39 1.910-10 temperature)
14
 Concept of extrinsic semiconductors:
doping semiconductor materials
Can we have different concentration of electrons and holes?
The answer is yes. We need to introduce special impurities into the crystal:
Donors: atoms from column V of the Periodic Table. We obtain an extra
electron for each atom of donor.
Acceptors: atoms from column III of the Periodic Table. We obtain an
extra hole for each atom of acceptor.
- - - -
- - - - - -
Si - Si Si - Si
- -
1
-
- 1 +
-
-
Donor - -
5 -
2
2
- - - -
Al -
-
Si
+ -
Sb - Si
3
- 4 - Acceptor - -
3 15
 N-type and P-type semiconductors

- - - -
- - - -
Si
- -
Si - Si
- Si
- 5
-
1
- - 1 +
Donor - - - -
2
2 -
Al-
- - -
Si
- -
Sb+ Si
- -
- 4 - Acceptor - -
3 3

N-type semiconductor: P-type semiconductor:

Majority carriers are electrons.
Minority carriers are holes.
Positively-charged atoms of donor
(positive ions).
Majority carriers are holes.
Minority carriers are electrons.
Negatively-charged atoms of acceptor
(negative ions).
16
 Charges in N-type and P-type semiconductors

+ + +
- Al
- +
Al
- - Al
-
Al Al
+
- + + +
Thermal - - - - -
generation Al Al Al Al Al
+ + +
P-type silicon Acceptor ions
+ hole (negative ions)
- electron Donor ions
(positive ions)
- - - -
Sb+ Sb+ - Sb+ Sb+ Sb+
Thermal +
- - - -
generation -
Sb+ Sb+ Sb+ - Sb+ Sb+
N-type silicon 17
 Charge carries in N-type and P-type semiconductors

+ + +
Concentration of majority carriers: pP
- - -
Al Al Al Concentration of minority carriers: nP
- +
-
+
- -
Mass action law: pPnP = ni2
Al Al Al
+
(only valid at equilibrium)
+ P-type

- - Concentration of majority carriers: nN

Sb+ Sb+ - Sb+
+ Concentration of minority carriers: pN
- - -
- Mass action law: nNpN = ni2
Sb+ Sb+ Sb+
(only valid at equilibrium)
N-type

Very important equations!!! 18

 Static charges in N-type and P-type semiconductors

+ + +
- Al
- Al
-
Al
- Concentration of acceptors: NA
+ +
- - - (only negative static charges in a
Al Al Al
+ + P-type semiconductor)
P-type

- - Concentration of donors: ND
Sb+ Sb+ - Sb+
+ (only positive static charges in a
- - - N-type semiconductor)
-
Sb+ Sb+ Sb+
N-type
19
 Neutrality in N-type and P-type semiconductors
Silicon, aluminium and antimony were neutral before being used
The extrinsic semiconductor must be neutral, too.

Positive charges in volume V: pPV

+ + +
- - - Negative charges in volume V: nPV + NAV
Al Al Al
- +
Neutrality: pP = nP + NA
+
- Al
- Al
-
Al
+ +
P-type

- - Negative charges in volume V: nNV

Positive charges in volume V: pNV + NDV
Sb+ Sb+ - Sb+
+ Neutrality: nN = pN + ND
- - -
-
Sb+ Sb+ Sb+
Very important equations!!!
N-type 20
 Calculating the concentration of electrons and holes (I)

Neutrality: pP = nP + NA
+ + +
- - - Mass action law: pPnP = ni2
Al Al Al
- 2 known (NA and ni) and 2 unkown (pP
+ + and nP) variables can be solved
- Al
- Al
-
Al
+ +
P-type

- - Neutrality: nN = pN + ND
Sb+ Sb+ - Sb+ Mass action law: nNpN = ni2
+ 2 known (ND and ni) and 2 unkown (nN
- -
- - and pN) variables can be solved
Sb+ Sb+ Sb+
N-type
21
 Calculating the concentration of electrons and holes (II)
Frequent case: quite heavy doped semiconductors

NA >> ni
+ + +
- Al
- Al
- Neutrality: pP NA
Al
- +
Mass action law: nP ni2/NA
+
- Al
- Al
-
Al
+ +
P-type

ND >> ni
- -
Neutrality: nN ND
Sb+ Sb+ - Sb+
+
- Mass action law: pN ni2/ND
- -
-
Sb+ Sb+ Sb+
N-type Very useful equations!!!
22
 Mechanisms to conduct electric current: Drift (I)

Semiconductors can conduct electric current due to the presence of an

electric field E

E
-

+++++
-
- - - -

-
+ + + +
- - - -
- + + + +

-
jp

jn

jp_Drift = qppE is the current density of holes due to drift.

jn_Drift = qnnE is the current density of electrons due to drift. 23
 Mechanisms to conduct electric current: Drift (II)

jp_Drift = qppE

jn_Drift = qnnE
q = magnitude of the electronic charge (1.610-19 coulombs).
p = hole mobility.
n = electron mobility.
p = hole concentration.
n = electron concentration.
Ge Si GaAs
E = electric field. (cm2/Vs) (cm2/Vs) (cm2/Vs)

n 3900 1350 8500

p 1900 480 400

24
 Mechanisms to conduct electric current: Diffusion (I)

- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
- - -
1 - - - 2

n1 n2 < n1
jn_Diff

Electrons have migrated due to diffusion (you can see

the same phenomenon in gases)
25
 Mechanisms to conduct electric current: Diffusion (II)

If we maintain a different concentration of electrons, we

also maintain the motion of electrons in the lattice

- - - -
- - - - -
- - - - - -
- - - -
- - - - -
- - - - -
1 - - - 2

n1
n2 < n1
n
jn_Diff 26
 Mechanisms to conduct electric current: Diffusion (III)

-
- - -
- -
- -
- - - - - -
- - -
- - -
1
-
- 2

n1 n2 < n1
jn_Diff

n
The current density is proportional to the electron concentration gradient:

jn_Diff = qDn n Dn = electron diffusion coefficient.
27
 Mechanisms to conduct electric current: Diffusion (IV)

+
+
+ +
+
+ +
+
+ + + + + +
+ +
+ +
+ +
1
+
+ 2

p1 p2 < p1


jp_Diff p
The current density is proportional to the hole concentration gradient:

jp_Diff = -qDp p Dp = hole diffusion coefficient. 28
Mechanisms to conduct electric current: Diffusion (V)

jp_Diff = -qDp p

jn_Diff = qDn n
q = magnitude of the electronic charge (1.610-19 coulombs).
Dp = hole diffusion coefficient.
Dn = electron diffusion coefficient.

p = hole concentration gradient.

n = electron concentration gradient.

Ge Si GaAs
(cm2/s) (cm2/s) (cm2/s)

Dn 100 35 220
Dp 50 12.5 10
29
 Summary of conduction mechanisms

jp_Drift = qppE Drift currents depend on the carrier
concentration and on the electric field.
jn_Drift = qnnE

jp_Diff = -qDp p Diffusion currents do not depend on
the carrier concentration, but on the
jn_Diff = qDn n carrier concentration gradient.

30
 Continuity equations (I)
There are some relationships between spatial and time variations of
carrier concentrations because electrons and holes cannot mysteriously
appear and disappear at a given point, but must be transported to or
created at the given point via some type of ongoing action.

The concentration of holes can be time-changing due to:

Different current density of holes across A and B.
Excess of carriers over the equilibrium (mass action law).
Generation of electron-hole pairs by radiation (light) .

A B
31
 Continuity equations (II)

- jn_B
Different current density +
of holes across A and B.
+
jp_A jp_B
A B

Excess of carriers over the

equilibrium (mass action law). +
-
A B
Light

Generation of electron-hole
pairs by radiation (light) . -
+

A B 32
 Continuity equations (III)
Taking into account the three effects, we obtain the continuity equation for
holes:

p/t = GL- [p(t)-p]/p - jp/q

Total time variation Variation due to the excess of

of holes carriers over the equilibrium

Variation due to the generation

of electron-hole pairs by light Variation due to the
different current density of
GL: rate of generation of electron-hole pairs by light. holes across A and B
p: hole minority-carrier lifetime.
p: hole concentration in steady-state.

Similarly, we can obtain the continuity equation for electrons:

n/t = GL- [n(t)-n]/n jn/q
+
33
 Time evolution of an excess of minority carries (I)
We generate an excess of electron-hole pairs by injecting light
into a piece of N-type silicon and we reach the steady-state.
0 0

p/t = GL- [p(t)-p]/p - jp/q p0= GLp + p

+ + + +
p0
+ + + + +
+ + + +
N
Now the light injected disappears. We want to compute the time evolution of
the hole concentration afterwards.

p0
+ + + +
+ + + + + p(t)
+ + + +
N p 34
 Time evolution of an excess of minority carries (II)

We can also compute the time evolution of the hole concentration from
the continuity equation:
0 0

p/t = GL- [p(t)-p]/p - jp/q
After integrating p(t) = p + (p- p)e-tp

Tangent line
p0 Same area

p p(t) p
t
p
Physical interpretation: There is an appreciable
increase of holes during 3-5 times p. 35
 Spatial evolution of an excess of minority carries (I)
We constantly inject an excess of holes into a surface of a
piece of N-type silicon and we reach the steady-state. No electric
field exists and the hole current is due to diffusion.

+ p0 +
+ + N
+ +
+ + + + +
+ + + +
+ + + p

x xN
0
0 0

p/t = GL- [p(t, x)-p]/p - jp/q
0 = - [p(x)-p]/p + Dp2[p(x)-p]/x2
After integrating p(x) = p + C1e-x/Lp + C2ex/Lp
where : Lp=(Dp p)1/2 is the minority hole diffusion length 36
 Spatial evolution of an excess of minority carries (II)

p(x) = p + C1e-x/Lp + C2ex/Lp

xN: length of the N-type crystal
Lp: hole diffusion length
Cases:

a) Lp << xN (wide crystal): p(x) = p + (p- p)e-xLp (decay exponentially).

b) Lp >> xN (narrow crystal): p(x) = p + (p- p)(xN-x)/xN (decay linearly).
c) Other cases hyperbolic sine evolution.

Lp << xN (wide) Lp >> xN (narrow)

p0 p0
p(x)
p(x) Tangent line
p p
x x
Lp xN xN 37
 Concept of PN junction (I)

P-type silicon N-type silicon

+ + + - - -
- - + - - Sb+ Sb+ Sb+
Al Al Al Al Sb+ - -
- + +
- - +
+ -
- - - -
Al Al Al Al Sb+ Sb+ Sb+ - Sb+
+ +

Barrier to avoid carrier diffusion

What happens if we remove the barrier?

38
 Concept of PN junction (II)

P-side N-side

+ + - - -
- - + - - + Sb+ Sb+ Sb+
Al Al Al Al Sb+ - -
- + - +
+ - -
- - - -+
Al Al Al Al Sb+ Sb+ Sb+ - Sb+
+ +

Holes begin to diffuse from the P-side to the N-side. Similarly, electrons diffuse from the
N-side to the P-side

Are all the carriers to be diffused?

39
 Concept of PN junction (III)
Are all the carriers to be diffused?

P-side N-side

+ - - -
- - - - + Sb+ Sb+ Sb+
Al +
Al Al + Al Sb+ -
- - - - +
+
- - - -+
Al + Al Al + Al Sb+ Sb+
- Sb+ Sb+
+ -
Non-neutral P-type region, but Non-neutral N-type region, but
negatively charged positively charged

Is this situation the final situation?

The answer is no 40
 Concept of PN junction (IV)

P-side N-side

+ + - - -
- - + - - + Sb+ Sb+ Sb+
Al Al Al Al Sb+ - -
- + - +
+ - -
- - - -+
Al Al Al Al Sb+ Sb+ Sb+ - Sb+
+ +

- +
E
An electric field appears just in the boundary
between both regions (we call this boundary
metallurgical junction)
41
 Concept of PN junction (V)
Now, we do zoom over the metallurgical junction
P-side N-type

+ -
- - - - Sb+ Sb+ Sb+
Al Al Al Al Sb+
+
-
+ -
- - - -
Al Al Al Al Sb+ Sb+ Sb+ Sb+

- +
Due to diffusion ()
E
Due to drift (electric field) ()

The electric field limits the carrier diffusion

42
 Concept of PN junction (VI)
Steady-state situation near the metallurgical junction

+ +
-
Al
- Al
- Al
- Al
- Sb+ Sb+ Sb+ - Sb+ -
+ -
+
- - - Al
- Sb+ Sb+ - Sb+
-
Sb+
Al Al Al
+ +

Neutral P-type region - + Neutral N-type region

(holes are balanced by (electrons are balanced by
negative ions )
E positive ions )

Depletion region, or space charge region, or transition region

Unbalanced charge exists because carriers barely exist

43
 Concept of PN junction (VII)
Summary and terminology
Metallurgical junction

P-side + - N-side
(neutral) (neutral)
Many holes, but Many electrons, but
neutral
E neutral

V0

Depletion, or transition, or space charge region (non neutral)

There is space charge and, therefore, there are electric field E and voltage V0.
However, there are almost no charge carriers

44
 Computing the built-in voltage V0 (I)

Net current passing through any section must be zero. As neither holes nor
electrons are being accumulated in any parts of the crystal, net current due
to holes is zero and net current due to electrons is zero.

-+
-+
-+
Due to diffusion +- +
N-side
+ Due to drift
-+
- + - Due to diffusion
Due to drift --+
P-side -+
jp_Diff jp_Drift Currents must cancel each other
jn_Drift jn_Diff Currents must cancel each other
45
 Computing the built-in voltage V0 (II)

pP (hole concentration in P-side ) (hole concentration in N-side ) pN

+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
- +
+ + + +
- + N-side
+
Due
+ to diffusion
+ + + - +
+ + + +
- V0 +
+

+ + + + Due to drift
+
+
Zona P+ + + - +
+ + + +

jp_Diff jp_Drift
jp_Drift = - jp_Diff
46
 Computing the built-in voltage V0 (III)
Equations:

jp_Drift = - jp_Diff
jp_Drift = qppE
jp_Diff = -qDpdp/dx
E = -dV/dx

E Therefore: dV = -(Dp/p)dp/p
After integrating :

V0 = VN-side VP-side = -(Dp/p)ln(pN/pP) = (Dp/p)ln(pP/pN)

Repeating the same process with electrons, we obtain:

V0 = (Dn/n)ln(nN/nP) k = Boltzmann constant.

It could be demonstrated: VT = 26 mV at 300 K.

Dp/p = Dn/n = kT/q = VT (Einstein relation) 47

 Computing the built-in voltage V0 (IV)

pP nP Summary (I) nN pN
- - - -
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
- + - - - -
+ + + +
- +- - - - -
+ - - - -
+ + + + - + - - - -
+ + - + +
- V0
+ - - - -
+ + + +
+ - - - -
+
Zona P+ + + - + - - - - + -
+ + + +

P-side: many holes Almost no holes N-side: many electrons

Almost no electrons or electrons Almost no holes

V0 = VTln(pP/pN) and also V0 = VTln(nN/nP)

48
 Computing the built-in voltage V0 (V)
Summary (II)

P-side - + N-side
NA, pP, nP V0 ND, nN, pN
If NA >> ni (current case) If ND >> ni (current case)
p P = NA nP = ni2/NA nN = ND pN = ni2/ND

V0 = VTln(pP/pN) and also V0 = VTln(nN/nP)

V0 = VTln(NAND/ni2), VT = 26 mV at 300 K
49
 Depletion width in P-side and in N-side

P-side N-side

- - - Al
- Sb+ Sb+ Sb+
Al Al Al -
+
Sb+ Sb+ Sb+ -
Al
- Al
- Al
- Al
-
Sb+ Sb+ Sb+
+
-
WP0 WN0
NA ND
W0

Charge neutrality implies: NAWP0 = NDWN0

The heavier doped a side, the narrower

the depletion region in that side 50
 Calculating the electric field E and
the total depletion width W0 (I)
V0
- +
We need to know: rP-side E(x) rN-side
The electric field E. + -
The total depletion width W0.
P-side - + N-side
WP0 WN0
W0
We already know:
The charge density in both sides inside the depletion region:
rP-side = NAq and rN-side = NDq
The relative width of the depletion region in the P-side and in the N-side:
NAWP0 = NDWN0
The built-in (contact) voltage: V0 = VTln(NAND/ni2)

We will use Gauss law and the relationship

between electric field and voltage 51
 Calculating the electric field E and
E(x) the total depletion width W0 (II)
+ -
P-side - + N-side
W0
- V0 +
r(x) qND
Charge
density x
E(x) = r(x)/e

Gauss law:
-qNA
Electric field x
E(x) -Emax0

V(x)

Voltage and electric field: E(x) = - V
Voltage V0 x 52
 Calculating the electric field E and
E(x) the total depletion width W0 (III)
+ -
P-side - + N-side
W0
After applying Gauss law and the
- V0 + relationship between electric field and
qND voltage, we obtain:
Charge
density x
2e(NA+ND)V0
W0 =
-qNA qNAND
Electric field x

-Emax0 2qNANDV0
Emax0 =
e(NA+ND)
Voltage V0 x 53
 Summary of the study of the PN junction with no
external bias
Electric field at the metallurgical junction Emax0
- V0 +

P-side N-side
Doped NA - + Doped ND
P-side: many holes WP0 WN0 N-side: many electrons
Almost no electrons Almost no holes
W0
Almost no holes or electrons, Very important
but space charge, electric
field and voltage equations!!!
V0 = VTln(NAND/ni2) W0 = WP0 + WN0 NAWP0 = NDWN0

2e(NA+ND)V0 2qNANDV0
W0 = Emax0 =
qNAND e(NA+ND) 54
 Connecting external terminals to a PN junction

metal-semiconductor contacts

+-
P-side N-side
+ - - V0 + +V -
VmP Nm

i=0

V=0 No energy can be

Therefore: dissipated here
V = 0, i = 0
Hence: Conclusion:
VmP V0 + VNm = 0 The built-in voltages across each metal-
semiconductor contact cancel out the effect of V0
And: in such a way that V0 does not appear externally.
VmP + VNm = V0 55
 Biasing the PN junction: forward bias

Low resistivity: Low resistivity:

VP=0 VN=0

+- VmP and VNm do not change

P-side N-side and, therefore VmP+VNm= V0

+ - -V + +V -
VmP j

i0
Nm

V0 becomes Vj now

+ -
Vext
Vext = VmP - Vj + VNm = V0 - Vj
Therefore: Vj = V0 - Vext

Conclusion:
The built-in voltage across the junction has decreased Vext volts
56
 Biasing the PN junction: reverse bias

Low resistivity: Low resistivity:

VP=0 VN=0

+-
P-side N-side
+ - - + +V - VmP and VNm do not change
VmP Vj
i0
Nm and, therefore VmP+VNm= V0

- +
Vext
Vext = -VmP +Vj - VNm = -V0 + Vj
Therefore: Vj = V0 + Vext

Conclusion:
The built-in voltage across the junction has increased Vext volts
57
Biasing the PN junction: notation for a general case

+-
P-side N-side
- +
Vj
i
=
+
Vext
-

Conclusion:
Always: Vj = V0 - Vext, being:
0 < Vext < V0 (forward biased)
Vext < 0 (reverse biased)
58
 Effects of the bias on the depletion region

We must replace V0 with Vj, that is, replace V0 with V0-Vext

Without bias With bias

Vj0 = V0 Vj (Vext) = V0 - Vext

2e(NA+ND)V0 2e(NA+ND)(V0-Vext)
W0 = W(Vext) =
qNAND qNAND

2qNANDV0 2qNAND(V0-Vext)
Emax0 = Emax(Vext) =
e(NA+ND) e(NA+ND)

Always: V0 = VTln(NAND/ni2) 59
 W0
W
Effects of the forward
P-side -- + N-side bias on the depletion
VV
0-V1
region
0

V1 r(x)
x
Less spatial charge

E(x) x
Lower electric field
-Emax
-Emax0
Vj(x)
V0 Lower built-in voltage
V0-V1 x 60
 WW0

Effects of the reverse

P-side
- - ++ N-side bias on the depletion
V0V+V
0 2 region

V2 r(x)
x
More spatial charge

E(x) x
Higher electric field
-Emax0
-Emax

Vj(x)
V0+V2 Higher built-in voltage
V0
x 61
 Effects of the bias on the neutral regions (I)
nP nPV nNV nN
- - - - -
- + - - - - -
- - - - -
-
- + - Zona P
- -
- -
- - - + - - - - -
V0V-V0ext - - - - -
- - +
- -
- - -
P-side - + - - - - -

No bias: V0 = VTln(nN/nP)
Forward bias: V0-Vext =VTln(nNV/nPV)
For holes with forward bias: V0-Vext =VTln(pPV/pNV)
62
 Effects of the bias on the neutral regions (II)

The quotients nNV/nPV and pPV/pNV strongly change with bias.

In practice, nNV and pPV do not change appreciably (i.e., nNV
nN and pPV pP) for charge neutrality reasons.
Therefore the concentration of minority carriers (i.e., pNV and
nPV) strongly changes at the depletion region edges.
The values of nPV and pNV can be easily obtained:
V0-Vext =VTln(nN/nPV) nPV = nNe -(V0-Vext)/ VT
-(V0-Vext)/ VT
V0-Vext =VTln(pP/pNV) NV P
p = p e

As nN ND and pP NA, then:

nPV = NDe-(V0-Vext)/ VT pNV = NAe-(V0-Vext)/ VT

63
 Effects of the bias on the neutral regions (III)

Non-biased junction Non-biased junction

2 -V0/ VT
pN = ni /ND = NAe nP = ni2/NA = NDe-V0/ VT
Biased junction
Biased junction
-Vj/ VT -Vj/ VT
pNV = NAe nPV = NDe

+-
Zona P Zona N
- Vj +
pP = NA Vj = V0-Vext nN = ND

+ =-
Vext 64
 Effects of the bias on the neutral regions (IV)
-Vj/ VT
Concentration of minority carriers : pNV = NAe-Vj/ VT nPV = NDe
Forward bias: The concentration of minority carriers at the
depletion region edges increases, because Vj < V0
Reverse bias: The concentration of minority carriers at the
depletion region edges decreases, because Vj < V0

+-
P-side N-side Vj = V0-Vext
- Vj +

Forward and reverse bias:

The concentration of majority carriers in neutral regions does not change
65
 Effects of the bias on the neutral regions (V)
What happens with the minority
carriers along the neutral regions?

+-
P-side N-side
- Vj +
This is a case of injection of an excess of minority carriers (see slide #36).

Cases of interest:
a) Lp << xN (wide N-side)
decay exponentially
b) Lp >> xN (narrow N-side)
decay linearly
66
 Effects of the bias on the neutral regions (VI)
The concentration of minority carriers along the
neutral regions under forward biasing.

Wide P and N sides Narrow P and N sides

Vext Vext

P-side N-side P-side N-side

Minority carrier Minority carrier

0.1 mm 0.001 mm
concentration concentration
nPV pNV nPV pNV

nP pN nP pN
0 0
Length Length

Excess of minority carriers

It plays a fundamental role evaluating the switching speed of electronic devices.
67
 Effects of the bias on the neutral regions (VII)
The concentration of minority carriers along the
neutral regions under reverse biasing.

Wide P and N sides Narrow P and N sides

Vext Vext

P-side N-side P-side N-side

Minority carrier Minority carrier

0.1 mm 0.001 mm
concentration concentration

nPV pNV nPV pNV

nP pN nP pN
0 0
Length Length

Deficit (negative excess) of minority carriers

68
 Carriers along the overall device
Example of a silicon PN junction
Properties of Si at 300 K P -side N-side
Dp=12.5 cm2/s NA=1015 atm/cm3 ND=1015 atm/cm3
Dn=35 cm2/s p=100 ns n=100 ns
p=480 cm2/Vs
n=1350 cm2/Vs Lp=0.01 mm Ln=0.02 mm
ni=1010 carriers/cm3
er=11.8 V0=0.596 V
Carriers/cm3
1016

1014 pP nN
Forward biased 1012
with Vext = 0.48 V nPV
1010
pNV
108
106
Log scale
They decay exponentially
104
(log scale) -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3
Length [mm] 69
 Calculating the current passing through a PN junction (I)

We have addressed a lot of important issues related the

PN junction:
Charge, electric field and voltage across the
depletion region.
Concentration of majority and minority carriers
along the total device.
However, the most important issue has not been
addressed so far:
How can we compute the current passing through
the device?
Fortunately, we already have the tools to answer this
question.
70
 Calculating the current passing through a PN junction (II)
Case of wide P and N sides
Vext
jtotal Vj jtotal

2 P-side P 3 -+ 3 N N-side 2
1
several mm 0.3m

jtotal = jp_total(x) + jn_total(x) = jp_Drift(x) + jp_Diff(x) + jn_Drift(x) + jn_Diff(x)

Two questions arise:

What carrier must be evaluated to compute the overall current?
Where?
Places:
Depletion region 1 .
Neutral regions far from the depletion region 2 .
Neutral regions, but near the depletion region edges 3 . 71
 Calculating the current passing through a PN junction (III)
Computing the overall current from the current
density due to carriers in the depletion region
Vext
jtotal jtotal
Vj

P-side P -+ N N-side
several mm
Carriers/cm3 0.3m

1016 p nP
N Log scale
nPV pNV
1014

1m

jtotal = jp_Drift(x) + jp_Diff(x) + jn_Drift(x) + jn_Diff(x)

Currents due to drift (jp_Drift and jn_Drift) have opposite direction to currents due to
diffusion. Both currents have extremely high values (very high electric field and
carrier concentration gradient) and cannot be determined precisely enough to
guarantee that the difference (which is the total current) is properly computed.
Therefore, this is not the right place. 72
 Calculating the current passing through a PN junction (IV)
Computing the overall current from the current density due to
carriers in the neutral regions far from the depletion region
Vext
jtotal
Vj

P-side P -+ N

jtotal = jp_Drift(x) + jp_Diff(x) + jn_Drift(x) + jn_Diff(x)

High concentration Weak field

0 Constant
jp_Drift(x) = qpp(x)E(x) jp_Diff (x) = -qDpdp(x)/dx concentration
0 0
jn_Drift(x) = qnn(x)E(x) jn_Diff (x) = qDndn(x)/dx
Few electrons in P-side

Current is due to drift of majority carriers. However, it cannot be determined properly

because we do not know the value of the weak electric field. Therefore, these are
not the right places. 73
 Calculating the current passing through a PN junction (V)
Computing the overall current from the current density due to carriers
in the neutral regions but near the depletion region edges (I)
Vext
jtotal
Vj

P-side P -+ N

jtotal = jp_Drift(x) + jp_Diff(x) + jn_Drift(x) + jn_Diff(x)

High concentration Weak field

jp_Drift(x) = qpp(x)E(x) jp_Diff (x) = -qDpdp(x)/dx

0
jn_Drift(x) = qnn(x)E(x) jn_Diff (x) = qDndn(x)/dx
Few electrons in P-side

We cannot compute the total current yet, but we can compute the current density
due to minority carriers:
jn_total (x) = jn_Drift(x) + jn_Diff(x) jn_Diff (x) = qDndn(x)/dx 74
 Calculating the current passing through a PN junction (VI)
Computing the overall current from the current density due to carriers
in the neutral regions but near the depletion region edges (II)
We can do the same for the holes just in the opposite side of the depletion region

Vext jn_total(x) Vj jp_total(x)

P-side P -+ N N-side
concentration

nPV pNV
Minority

pN
carrier

nP
0 Length

jn_total(x) = qDndnPV(x)/dx Taking derivatives jp_total (x)= -qDpdpNV(x)/dx

Current density

jn_total(x) jp_total(x)

0 Length 75
 Calculating the current passing through a PN junction (VII)
Computing the overall current from the current density due to carriers
in the neutral regions but near the depletion region edges (III)

What happens with carriers in the depletion region?

Vext jn_total(x) Vj jp_total(x)

P-side P -+ N N-side
Current density of
minority carriers

jn_total(x) jp_total(x)

0 Length

The carrier density currents passing through the depletion region are constant
because the probability of carrier recombination is very low, due to the low
carrier concentration in that region. 76
 Calculating the current passing through a PN junction (VIII)
Computing the overall current from the current density due to carriers
in the neutral regions but near the depletion region edges (IV)
Now the total current density can be easily computed
Vext
jn_total(x) Vj jp_total(x)

P-side P -+ N N-side

jtotal
Current density

Very important
jn_total(x) jp_total(x)
conclusion!!!
0 Length

The total current density passing through the device can be computed as the
addition of the two minority current densities at the edges of the depletion
region 77
 Calculating the current passing through a PN junction (IX)
Summary of the computing of the overall
current density in a PN junction
jn_total(x) Vj jp_total(x)

P-side -+ N-side

We need to know the variation of the minority carrier

concentrations at the depletion region edges.
We have to calculate the gradients of these concentrations (taking
derivatives).
We have to calculate the current densities due to these minority
carriers, which are diffusion currents.
We must add both current densities to obtain the total current
density, which is constant along all the device. This is the total current
density passing through the device.
78
 Calculating the current passing through a PN junction (X)
Once the total current density and the minority-carrier
current densities are known, the majority-carrier current
density can be easily calculated by difference.
jn_total(x) Vj jp_total(x)

P-side -+ N-side
Total current
jtotal

Majority-carrier currents, due

Current density

to both drift and diffusion

jn_total(x) jp_total(x)

0 Length

Minority-carrier currents, only due to diffusion

79
 Current passing through an asymmetrical junction (P+N-)
P-side is heavily doped (P+) and wide
N-side is slightly doped (N-) and narrow

Vext jn_total(x) Vj

P+-side (wide) -+ N--side

Concentration

pNV
nPV pN
nP
0 Length

This is a case of special

jtotal interest, because it is
Current density

directly related to the

jp_total(x) operation of Bipolar
Junction Transistors (BJTs)
jn_total(x)
0 Length 80
 Qualitative study of the current in a
forward-biased PN junction

Vext jtotal Vj

P-side P -+ N N-side
Minority carrier
concentration

nPV pNV
nP pN
0 Length

High slope High current density due High slope High current density
to electrons in the depletion region due to holes in the depletion region
jtotal
Current density

High and positive

total current density
jn_total(x) jp_total(x)

0 Length 81
 Qualitative study of the current in a
reverse-biased PN junction

Vext jtotal Vj

P-side P -+ N N-side
Minority carrier
concentration

pNV
nP nPV pN
0 Length

Low slope Low current density due Low slope Low current density
to electrons in the depletion region due to holes in the depletion region

Low and negative total

Current density

current density
jp_total(x) jn_total(x)
0 Length

jtotal
82
 Quantitative study of the current in a PN junction (I)

Procedure:
1- Compute the concentration of minority holes (electrons) in the proper edge of
the depletion region when a given voltage is externally applied.
2- Compute the excess minority hole (electron) concentration at the above
mentioned place. It is also a function of the externally applied voltage.
3- Compute the decay of the excess minority hole (electron) concentration
(exponential, if the semiconductor side is wide, or linear, if it is narrow).
4- Compute the gradient of the decay of the excess minority hole (electron)
concentration just at the proper edge of the depletion region.
5- Compute the diffusion current density due to the above mentioned gradient.
5- Once the current due to minority holes (electrons) has been calculated,
repeat the same process with electrons (holes).
6- Add both current densities.

7- Compute the total current by multiplying the current density by the cross-
sectional area.
83
Quantitative study of the current in a PN junction (II)
The final results is:
i = IS(eV /VT
ext - 1), where:
i
IS = Aqni2[Dp/(NDLp)+Dn/(NALn)] + P
(Is is called reverse-bias saturation current)
Vext N

VT = kT/q (Shockley equation)

-
where:
A = cross-sectional area.
q = magnitude of the electronic charge (1.610-19 coulombs).
ni = intrinsic carrier concentration.
Dp = hole diffusion coefficient.
Dn = electron diffusion coefficient.
Lp = hole diffusion length in N-side.
Ln = electron diffusion length in P-side.
ND = donor concentration.
NA = acceptor concentration.
k = Boltzmann constant.
T = absolute temperature (in Kelvin). 84
 Quantitative study of the current in a PN junction (III)

i = IS(eV /V - 1)
ext T

IS = Aqni2[Dp/(NDLp)+Dn/(NALn)]
VT = kT/q i [mA]
100

Forward bias VO > Vext >> VT

Vext
i IS e VT exponential dependence
0
- 0.25 0.25 0.5Vext [V]

i [nA]
Reverse bias Vext << -VT Vext [V]
-0.5 0

i -IS constant
(reverse-bias saturation current)
85
-10
 Quantitative study of the current in a PN junction (IV)
Wide versus narrow P and N sides

Wide sides Vext Narrow sides Vext

P-side N-side P-side N-side

XP XN XP XN
XP >> Ln XN >> Lp XP << Ln XN << Lp
Minority carrier Minority carrier
concentration concentration
nPV pNV nPV pNV

nP pN nP pN
0 0
Length Length

IS = Aqni2[Dp/(NDLp)+Dn/(NALn)] IS = Aqni2[Dp/(NDXN)+Dn/(NAXP)]

Equation i = IS(eV ext /VT - 1) is valid in both cases 86

 Quantitative study of the current in a PN junction (V)
The I-V characteristic in a real scale of use

i [A]
Equation i = IS(eV /V - 1) describes the
ext T
Actual I-V 3
operation in the range VO > Vext > -.
characteristic
However, three questions arise:
According to What happens if Vext > VO?
Shockley equation
Vext [V] How does the temperature affect
this characteristic?
-4 0 1
What is the actual maximum voltage
VP 0 VN 0 that the junction can withstand?
+ - + -
When Vext appraches V0 (or it is even
+- higher), the current passing is so
P-side N-side high that the voltage drop in the
+ - - + + - neutral regions is not zero. This
VmP V VNm
i 0
j
voltage drop is proportional to the
Vext
current (it behaves as a resistor).
87
 Temperature dependence of the I-V characteristic (I)

Reverse bias: i -IS

where: IS = Aqni2[Dp/(NDLp)+Dn/(NALn)].
It should be taken into account that ni strongly depends on the temperature.
Therefore: Reverse current strongly increases when the
temperature increases. It doubles its value
when the temperature increases 10 oC.

Forward bias: i ISeV /VT

ext = ISeqV
ext /kT Decreases with T

Increases with T

In practice, forward current increases when the

temperature increases. For extremely high currents,
the dependence can become just the opposite. 88
 Temperature dependence of the I-V characteristic (II)

Forward bias Reverse bias

i

i [A]
30
i [A] + P
370C V N
-0.25 Vext [V]
-
27 0C 27 0C
Vext [V]
37 0C
0 1 -10

In both cases, the current increases for a given external voltage.

89
 Maximum reverse voltage that a PN junction can withstand
There are three different physical processes which limit
the reverse voltage that a given PN junction can withstand:
Punch-through It will be explained later
Zener breakdown This phenomenon does not take place in
power devices (two heavily doped
Avalanche breakdown
regions are needs).
Actual reverse current is higher than predicted due to the generation of
electron-hole pairs by collisions with the lattice.
If the electric field is high enough, this phenomenon becomes degenerative.
i
- + Vext
--
+ - +-
P - + +
+ 0
N

i
+ Vext - 90
 Electric field in the depletion region with reverse bias
No bias Reverse bias

2e(NV A+ND)V0 2e(NV A+ND)(V0+Vrev)

W0 = UV W(Vrev) = UV
p e T qN N p e T qN N
PN A D PN A D

2qNANDV0 2qNAND(V0+Vrev)
Emax0= Emax(Vrev) =
e(NA+ND) e(NA+ND)
W0 W(Vrev)
P - + N P - + N
V0 V0+Vrev

-Emax0

-Emax(Vrev)
As already known, both the electric field and depletion length increase.
When the maximum electric field is high enough, the avalanche
91
breakdown starts.
 Limits for the depletion region with reverse bias
Punch-through limit
WPN 2qNAND|Vrev|
Emax(Vrev)
W(Vrev) e(NA+ND)

P - + N
We must design the semiconductor
|Vrev|
according to: Emax(Vrev) < EBR.
The breakdown voltage is:
VBR = EBR2e(NA + ND)/(2qNAND).

2e(NV
UV A+ND)|Vrev| V
-Emax W(Vrev) UV
p e T qNAND
PN p e T
-EBR PN

Avalanche Moreover, W(Vrev) < WPN to avoid the

phenomenon called punch-through.
breakdown limit
Usually W(VBR) < WPN, which means that practical voltage limit
is not due to punch-through, but to avalanche breakdown. 92
 What must we do to withstand high-voltage?

EBR2e(NA + ND) EBR2e 1 1

VBR = VBR = ( + )
ND N A
2qNAND 2q
A high value of VBR is obtained if one of the two regions has been slightly
doped (i.e., either NA or ND is relatively low).
However, it should taken into account that low values of ND (NA) implies:
Wide WN (WP), which also implies wide XN (XP) to avoid punch-through.
Low nN (pP) and, therefore, low conductivity.
If we have long length and low conductivity, then we have high resistivity.
Hence, a trade-off between resistivity and breakdown voltage must be
established.

P+
NA - + N--side
ND
p P = NA n N = ND
WN
NA >> ND 93
XN
 Maximum electric field Emax with reverse bias Vrev

P+
NA - + N--side
ND

NA >> ND r(x) qND

x
Can we increase VBR for a given
-qNA EBR value?
x
- Yes, we can. We must modify
the electric field profile.

-Emax -EBR - The result is the PIN junctions.

VBR

Vrev_N The main part of the reverse

Vrev voltage is dropping in the
slightly doped region.
Vrev_P x 94
 PIN junctions (I)
W(Vrev)
P - + N
Vrev Main idea: the voltage across the device is
proportional to the dashed area (E(x) = - dV/dx).
Can we have the same area (same voltage across
the device) with a lower value of Emax(Vrev)?
-Emax(Vrev) Yes, we can. We need another E(x) profile.

-Emax(Vrev) new profile (ideal)

-Emax(Vrev)
To obtain this profile, we need a region
without space charge (undoped) inside
the PN junction.

-Emax(Vrev) new profile (real)

-Emax(Vrev)
95
 PIN junctions (II) It means P-Intrinsic-N
Negative Positive
space charge A few holes space charge
Many holes and electrons Many electrons

P-side - Intrinsic + N-side

r(x) qND Characteristics:

x - Good forward operation due
to conductivity modulation.
-qNA
- Low depletion capacitance.
x
- Slow switching operation.
-Emax All these characteristics will be
explained later.

Vrev
x 96
 Other structure to withstand high voltage: P+N-N+

Heavily doped P Lightly doped N Heavily doped N

P+ - + N- N
+ N
+
NA ND1 D2
Partially
q(ND2-ND1) qND2 depleted
r(x)
qND1
x
Low reverse voltage Vrev1
-qNA

x
-Emax(Vrev1) Reverse voltage Vrev2

-Emax(Vrev2) Vrev2 > Vrev1 97

 Forward-bias behaviour of structures to
withstand high voltage

P+ Intrinsic N+ PIN
Undoped
In both cases, there is a high-resistivity layer
Lightly doped (called drift region)

P+ N- N+ P+N-N+

This means that, when forward biased, bad behaviour might be expected.
However, a new phenomenon arises and the result is quite better than
expected.
This phenomenon is called conductivity modulation. In this case,
high-level injection takes place.
98
 Injection levels
Low-level injection: High-level injection:
nN(0+) >> pNV(0+) nN(0+) pNV(0+)
Carriers/cm3
1016
1014 pP nN pP nN
1012
P+-side
1010 P+-side N--side N--side
nPV
108
nPV Not possible! pNV
pNV
106 Log scale Log scale
104
-0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0- 0+ 0.1 0.2 0.3-0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0- 0+ 0.1 0.2 0.3
Length [mm] Length [mm]

Low-level injection has been assumed so far, for PN and P+N- junctions.
In the case of a P+N- junction, this assumption is only valid if the forward
bias is not very intense. Else, high-level injection starts.
If the forward voltage is high enough, pNV(0+) approaches nN(0+). In this
case, nN does not remain constant any more, but it notably increases. 99
 Conductivity modulation
Drift region

P+ N- N+ P+N-N+
NA = 1019 ND1 = 1014 ND2 = 1019

Holes are injected

nN- pN-
1016 Electrons are injected
from the P+-side 1014 from the N+-side

nP+
106 pN+

10 10
There is carrier injection from both highly doped regions to the drift
region. This is called double injection.
This phenomenon substantially increases the carrier concentration in
100
the drift region, thus dramatically reducing the device resistivity.
 Semiconductor junctions designed to
withstand high voltage
PIN Summary P+N-N+

A high-resistivity region (drift region) is needed to withstand high

voltage when the junction is reverse biased.
Fortunately, this high-resistivity magically disappears when the
junction is forward biased if the device is properly designed to have
conductivity modulation.
Due to this, devices where the current is passing through P-type and
N-type regions (bipolar devices) have superior performances in on-state
than devices where the current always passes through the same type
(either P or N) of extrinsic semiconductor (unipolar devices).
Unfortunately, bipolar devices have inferior switching characteristics
than unipolar devices.
Due to this, a trade-off between conduction losses and switching losses
has to be established frequently selecting power semiconductor devices. 101
 Transient and AC operation of a PN junction

If we change the bias conditions instantaneusly,

can the current change instantaneusly as well?

The answer is no, it cannot.

This is due to the fact that the current conducted by a PN
junction depends on the minority carrier concentration just at the
edges of the depletion region and the voltage withstood by a PN
junction depends on the depletion region width.
In both cases, carriers have to be either generated or
recombined or moved, which always takes time.

These non-idealities can characterize as:

Parasitic capacitances (useful for linear applications)
Switching times (useful for switching applications) 102
 Parasitic capacitances: depletion layer capacitance (I)
(also known as junction capacitance)
This is the dominant capacitance in reverse bias

P-side - + N-side
Zona N
VO+Vext+Vext

r(x)
Vext + Vext

Carriers are pulled out from the depletion region when Vext is
increased in Vext . Additional space charge has been generated. 103
 Parasitic capacitances: depletion layer capacitance (II)

PN junction Capacitor
Vext Vext Vext + Vext

P - + N
+ + + +++++
Vext + Vext - - - -----
P - - + + N

Capacitor: new charges are located at the same

distance constant capacitance.
PN junction: new charges are located farther away
from each other non-constant capacitance. 104
 Parasitic capacitances: depletion layer capacitance (III)

As it is a non-constant capacitance,
dQ static and dynamic capacitances could be
defined. The latter is defined as:

-dQ Cj=dQ/dV=eA/W(Vext)
W(Vext) As:
2e(NV
UV A+ND)(V0-Vext)
W(Vext) = p e T
Cj PN qNAND
Then:

Vext
V
UV eqNAND
Cj = A p e T
0 2(N
PN A+ND)(V0-Vext)

In an abrupt PN junction (as we have considered so far),

this capacitance is a K(V0-Vext)-1/2 -type function 105
 Parasitic capacitances: diffusion capacitance (I)
This capacitance is the one dominant in forward bias

Cj

0 Vext
Reverse bias Forward bias

Cj increases when the PN junction is forward biased.

However, depletion layer capacitance only dominates the reactance of a
PN junction under reverse bias.
For forward bias, the diffusion capacitance (due to the charge
stored in the neutral regions) becomes dominant.
106
 Parasitic capacitances: diffusion capacitance (II)

1016
pP nN
Carriers/cm3

1014 V=240mV
nPV Increase of minority carriers due
1012 pNV to a increase of 60mV in forward
V=180mV bias
1010
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
Longitud [mm]

This increase in electric charge is a function of the forward bias voltage.

This means that a capacitive effect takes place in these conditions.

The dynamic capacitance thus obtained is called diffusion capacitance.

107
 Switching times in PN junctions (I)
Let us consider a PN diode as PN junction. The results obtained can be
generalized to PN junctions in other semiconductor devices.

R
i
a b Transition from a to b (switching off)
+ in a wide time scale (ms or s).
V2 v
V1
-
i
V1/R
t
The diode behaviour seems to
v t be ideal in this time scale.

-V2 108
 Switching times in PN junctions (II)

Transition from a to b (switching off) in a narrow time scale (s or ns).

R
i
a b i
+ V1/R
V2 v trr t
V1
- ts
-V2/R tf (i= -0.1V2/R)
ts = storage time.
tf = fall time.
v
trr = reverse recovery time. t

-V2
Reverse recovery peak
109
 Switching times in PN junctions (III)

R Why does this evolution occur?

i This is because the junction cannot
a b + withstand voltage until all the excess of
V2 v
minoritary carriers disappears from the
V1 neutral regions.

- Carriers/cm3
i V1/R
81013

t3 t4 t nPV pNV
t0 t1 t2 41013
t0
t1
-V2/R
0
v t2 t3 t4
t
-0.1 0 0.1
Length [mm]
-V2 110
 Switching times in PN junctions (IV)
R
i Transition from b to a (switching on)
a b in a narrow time scale (s or ns).
+
V2 v
V1 Carriers/cm3
- 81013

i
0,9V1/R nPV pNV
41013
t1
0,1V1/R t4 t4
t3
t0
td t2 t3
tr 0
t2 t1 t0
tfr
td = delay time. -0. 1 0 0.1
tr = rise time. Length [mm]
tfr = td + tr = forward recovery time.
111
 Trade-off between static and dynamic behaviour in
PN junctions
P+N-N+ and PIN structures allow us to
combine high reverse voltage (due to a wide
drift region) and low forward resistivity (due
P+ N- N+ to conductivity modulation).
NA = 1019 ND1 = 1014 ND2 = 1019 However, these structures imply large
1016 nN- pN- excess of minority carriers (even majority
Excess of carries due to conductivity modulation). This
electrons 1014 Excess of excess of carriers must be eliminated when
in N- holes in N- the device switches off to allow the device to
nP+ withstand voltage.
106 pN+
The time to remove this excess of carriers
Log scale depends on the width of the drift layer. If the
10 10
drift layer is shorter than a hole diffusion
Excess of Excess of length, then very little charge is stored and
electrons in P+ holes in N+ the device switches off fast. In this case,
however, the device cannot withstand high
reverse voltages.
The switching process can be made still faster by purposely adding recombination
centers, such as Au atoms in Si, to increase the recombination rate. However, this fact
can deteriorate the conductivity modulation. 112
 Introduction to the metal-semiconductor junctions (I)

Metals have many more electrons than semiconductors. However, metals

and semiconductors are different materials. This is not the case of a PN
junction, where the two sides (P and N) are made up of the same material.
In a PN junction made up of a given semiconductor, electrons (holes) move
from the N-side (P-side) to the P-side (N-side) due to diffusion, until the built-
in voltage establishes an equilibrium between diffusion and drift currents.
In a metal-semiconductor junction, the electron movement when the
junction is being built strongly depends on the work function of both
materials. The higher the work function, the more difficult for the electrons to
eject the material.
4 possibilities exist when you build a Metal-Semiconductor (MS) junction:
Metal N-type semiconductor
Case #1: an N-type
semiconductor transfers -- + +
-- +
electrons to a metal - + N
N-type
-- + +
- + +
Electrons (thin sheet) Donor ions 113
 Introduction to the metal-semiconductor junctions (II)

Case #2: a metal transfers electrons to a P-type semiconductor

Metal P-type semiconductor
Lack of electrons (thin sheet ) + - -
+
+
Recombination between the + - - P
transferred electrons and the +
+ - -
P-type
P-side holes takes place in this +
edge. + - -
Acceptor ions

In Case #1 and Case #2, a depletion region in the semiconductor side has
been generated.
This depletion region has a built-in voltage that stops the electron diffusion.
This built-in voltage can be decreased by external forward bias (thus
allowing massive electron diffusion) or increased by external reverse bias
(avoiding electron diffusion).
The final result is that it works like a rectifying contact (similar to a PN
junction). 114
 Introduction to the metal-semiconductor junctions (III)

Case #3: a metal transfers electrons to an N-type semiconductor

Metal N-type semiconductor
+ -
+ -
+ -
Lack of electrons
+ -
+ -
N-type Electrons
+ -
(thin sheet) + - (thin sheet)
+ -

Case #4: a P-type semiconductor transfers electrons to a metal

Metal P-type semiconductor
- +
- +
- + Holes
Electrons
-
-
+ P-type (thin sheet)
+
(thin sheet) - +
- +
- +

We have an ohmic contact (non-rectifying contact) in both cases. 115

 Rectifying contacts (I)
W0

-- + +
Case #1: an N-type -- +
semiconductor transfers
- + N
N-type
Metal
electrons to a metal -- + +
- + +
ND
The width of the depletion region, the maximum electric field and the
depletion layer capacitance can be calculated as in the case of a PN junction
with an extremely-doped P side (i.e., NA ).
Therefore:

2eV0 2qNDV0 eqN

V
U D
W0 = V
Emax0 = Cj0 = A p e2V
T
qND e PN 0

However, the built-in voltage and the I-V characteristic depend on

the work function of both the semiconductor and the metal. 116
 Rectifying contacts (II)

Built-in voltage:
V0 = (Fm - Fs_N)/q, where:
Fm = metal work function.
FS_n = N-type semiconductor work function.
Barrier voltage to avoid electron diffusion without bias:
VB = (Fm - cS_n)/q, where:
cS_n = N-type semiconductor electron affinity.
To define these concepts properly,
I-V characteristic: we should introduce others. This
task, however, is beyond the scope
i = IS(eVext/VT - 1), as in a PN junction. of this course.
However, the value of Is has a very different value:
IS = A*AT2e-V /V , where:
B T

A* = Richardson constant (120 amps/(cm2K2)). 117

 Rectifying contacts (III)
There is a type of diode based on the operation of a rectifying
contact. It is the Schottky diode. Schottky diodes are widely
used in many applications, including RF (telecom) circuits and
low-voltage, medium-power power converters.
Main features:
Lower forward voltage drop than a similar-range, PN-
junction diode. Schematic
Symbol
They are faster than PN diodes because minority carriers
hardly play any role in the current conduction process. They
are majority carrier devices.
However, they always have a higher reverse current (this
is not a big problem).
When they are made up of silicon, the maximum reverse
voltage (compatible with reasonable drop voltage in forward
bias) is about 200 V.
However, Schottky diodes made up of wide-bandgap
materials (such as silicon carbide and gallium nitride) reach
118
breakdown voltages as high as 600-1200 V.
 Ohmic contacts
There are two different possibilities to obtain ohmic contacts:
a) According to the previous slides, to have an MS junction
corresponding to Case #3 or to Case #4.
b) To have MS junctions corresponding to Cases #1 or #2, but
with an extremely-doped semiconductor side (1019 atoms/cm3).
In this situation, electrons can flow in both directions by a
tunneling process. Beyond the scope of this course, as well.

Ohmic contacts Ohmic contacts

P+ P N N+ PN diode

NA1 = 1019 NA2 = 1016 ND1 = 1016 ND2 = 1019

Rectifying contacts Ohmic contacts

N+ Schottky diode
N
ND1 = 1016 ND2 = 1019 119