Chapter 7

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 Roots of Polynomials
Chapter 7
The roots of polynomials such as

f n ( x) ao a1 x a2 x an x 2 n

Follow these rules:

1. For an nth order equation, there are n real or
complex roots.
2. If n is odd, there is at least one real root.
3. If complex root exist in conjugate pairs (that is,
l+mi and l-mi), where i=sqrt(-1).
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 Conventional Methods
The efficacy of bracketing and open methods
depends on whether the problem being solved
involves complex roots. If only real roots exist,
these methods could be used. However,
Finding good initial guesses complicates both the
open and bracketing methods, also the open
methods could be susceptible to divergence.
Special methods have been developed to find
the real and complex roots of polynomials
Mller and Bairstow methods.
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 Mller Method
Mllers method obtains a root estimate by
projecting a parabola to the x axis through three
function values. Figure 7.3

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 Mller Method
The method consists of deriving the
coefficients of parabola that goes through the
three points:

1. Write the equation in a convenient form:

f 2 ( x) a( x x2 ) b( x x2 ) c 2

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2. The parabola should intersect the three points [xo,
f(xo)], [x1, f(x1)], [x2, f(x2)]. The coefficients of the
polynomial can be estimated by substituting three
points to give
f ( xo ) a ( xo x2 ) 2 b( xo x2 ) c
f ( x1 ) a( x1 x2 ) 2 b( x1 x2 ) c
f ( x2 ) a ( x2 x2 ) 2 b ( x2 x2 ) c
3. Three equations can be solved for three unknowns,
a, b, c. Since two of the terms in the 3rd equation
are zero, it can be immediately solved for c=f(x2).
f ( xo ) f ( x2 ) a( xo x2 ) 2 b( xo x2 )
f ( x1 ) f ( x2 ) a( x1 x2 ) 2 b( x1 x2 )
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If
h o x1 - x o h1 x 2 - x1
f ( x1 ) f ( xo ) f ( x2 ) f ( x1 )
o 1
x1 xo x2 x1
(ho h1 )b (ho h1 ) 2 a ho o h11
Solved for a
h1b h a h11
1
2
and b

1 o
a b ah1 1 c f ( x2 )
h1 ho

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 Roots can be found by applying an alternative form of
quadratic formula:
2c
x3 x2
b b 4ac 2

The error can be calculated as

x3 x2
a 100%
x3
term yields two roots, the sign is chosen to agree with b. This
will result in a largest denominator, and will give root estimate
that is closest to x2.
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 Once x3 is determined, the process is
repeated using the following guidelines:
1. If only real roots are being located, choose the
two original points that are nearest the new root
estimate, x3.
2. If both real and complex roots are estimated,
employ a sequential approach just like in secant
method, x1, x2, and x3 to replace xo, x1, and x2.

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 Bairstows Method
Bairstows method is an iterative approach loosely
related to both Mller and Newton Raphson methods.
It is based on dividing a polynomial by a factor x-t:
f n ( x) ao a1 x a2 x 2 an x n
f n 1 ( x) b1 b2 x b3 x 2 bn x n
with a reminder R b o , the coefficien ts are
calculated by recurrence relationsh ip
bn an
bi a i bi 1t i n 1 to 2
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 To permit the evaluation of complex roots, Bairstows
method divides the polynomial by a quadratic factor
x2-rx-s:
f n 2 ( x) b2 b3 x bn 1 x n 3 bn x n 2
R b1 ( x r ) bo
Using a simple recurrence relationsh ip
bn an
bn-1 an-1 rbn
bi ai rbi 1 sbi 2 i n-2 to 0

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 For the remainder to be zero, bo and b1 must be
zero. However, it is unlikely that our initial
guesses at the values of r and s will lead to this
result, a systematic approach can be used to
modify our guesses so that bo and b1 approach
to zero.

Using a similar approach to Newton Raphson

method, both bo and b1 can be expanded as
function of both r and s in Taylor series.

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 b1 b1
b1 (r r , s s ) b1 r s
r s
bo bo
bo (r r , s s ) bo r s
r s
assuming that the initial guesses are adequately
close to the values of r and s at roots. The changes
in s and r needed to improve our guesses will be
estimated as
b1 b1
r s b1
r s
bo bo
r s bo
r s
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 If partial derivatives of the bs can be determined,
then the two equations can be solved simultaneously
for the two unknowns r and b.
Partial derivatives can be obtained by a synthetic
division of the bs in a similar fashion the bs
themselves are derived:
cn bn
cn 1 bn 1 rcn
ci bi rci 1 sci 2 i n 2 to 2
where
bo bo b1 b1
c1 c2 c3
r s r s
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 Then
c2 r c3s b1 Solved for r and s, in
turn are employed to
c1r c2 s bo improve the initial guesses.

At each step the error can be estimated as

r
a ,r 100%
r
r
a,s 100%
r
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 The values of the roots are determined by

r r 2 4s
x
2
At this point three possibilities exist:
1. The quotient is a third-order polynomial or greater. The
previous values of r and s serve as initial guesses and
Bairstows method is applied to the quotient to evaluate
new r and s values.
2. The quotient is quadratic. The remaining two roots are
evaluated directly, using the above eqn.
3. The quotient is a 1st order polynomial. The remaining
single root can be evaluated simply as x=-s/r.
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Refer to Tables pt2.3 and pt2.4

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