Difference between electrical and electronic

Electrical: When current flows through the conductor, that

phenomenon is called electrical.
Electronic: When current flows through the semiconductor, that
phenomenon is called electronic.
Conductor: The term conductor is applied to any material that
will support a generous flow of charge when a voltage source of
limited magnitude is applied across its terminals.
Insulator: An insulator is a material that offers a very low level of
conductivity under pressure from an applied voltage source.
Semiconductor: A semiconductor, therefore, is a material that
has a conductivity level somewhere between the extremes of
an insulator and a conductor.
Semiconductor materials
 Intrinsic semiconductor
Intrinsic semiconductor is defined as the semiconductor
that has no impurities i.e. pure semiconductor.
 Extrinsic semiconductor (p-type and n-type)
p-type material:material
A semiconductor The that
p-type material
has been subjectedisto formed
the dopingby
doping
processais pure germanium
called an or silicon crystal with
extrinsic semiconductor.
impurity atoms having three valence electrons.
n-Type Material: The n-type is created by introducing those
impurity elements that have five valence electrons
(pentavalent), such as antimony, arsenic, and phosphorus.
 Majority and minority carriers

In an n-type material the electron is called the majority

carrier and the hole the minority carrier.

In a p-type material the hole is the majority carrier and

the electron is the minority carrier.
 SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE

Diode: The semiconductor diode is formed by simply

bringing the p-type and n-type materials together.

Depletion region: This region of uncovered positive and

negative ions is called the depletion region due to the
depletion of carriers in this region.
 SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE

Reverse-Bias Condition (VD< 0 V): A semiconductor

diode is reverse-biased when the association p-type
and negative and n-type and positive has been
established.

The current that exists under reverse-bias conditions is

called the reverse saturation current (leakage current)
and is represented by Is.
 SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE

Forward-Bias Condition (VD > 0 V): A semiconductor

diode is forward-biased when the association p-type
and positive and n-type and negative has been
established.
Diode characteristics curve
DIODE EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS
Half-wave rectifier
 Full-wave rectifier

Two types:
i) Centre-tap full-wave rectifier
ii) Full-wave bridge rectifier
Full-wave rectifier
Filter circuit for rectifier
 Zener Diode

When an ordinary diode is properly doped so that it has

a sharp breakdown voltage, it is called a Zener diode.
Zener Diode as Voltage Stabiliser
 Transistor

When a third doped element is added to a diode is such

a way that two p-n junctions are formed, then the
resulting device is know as Transistor .
Transistor
Naming the Transistor Terminals
Transistor Action
Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)

The abbreviation BJT, from bipolar junction transistor, is

often applied to this three terminal device. The term
bipolar reflects the fact that holes and electrons
participate in the injection process into the oppositely
polarized material.
Transistor Symbols
Transistor Circuit as an Amplifier
Transistor parameters: alpha () and beta ()

The common base current gain, is defined as the ratio

of collector current (Ic) to emitter current (IE).

i.e.

The common-emitter current gain, is defined as the

ratio of collector current (Ic) to base current (IB).

i.e.
 Transistor Connections

A transistor can be connected in a circuit in the

following three ways :

i) common base connection

ii) common emitter connection

iii) common collector connection

Common Base Connection
Common Emitter Connection
Common Collector Connection
Relation Between and
 Biasing

Bias: Fixed dc voltage applied to a circuit that is intended

to set a devices operation at a particular point on its
characteristic curve.
Operating Region of Transistor

Three operating region:

Transistor characteristic curve
 Transistor Audio Power Amplifier
A transistor amplifier which raises the power level of the
signals that have audio frequency range is known as
transistor audio power amplifier.
Difference Between Voltage Amplifiers and
Power Amplifiers
Classification of Power Amplifiers

i) Class A power amplifier

ii) Class B power amplifier
iii)Class AB power amplifier
iv)Class C power amplifier
v) Class D power amplifier
Class A power amplifier
 Class B power amplifier
If the collector current flows only during the positive
half-cycle of the input signal, it is called a class B
power amplifier.
Class AB power amplifier
Class C power amplifier
Class D power amplifier
 Push-Pull Amplifier

Two class B operationsone to provide output on the positive output half-cycle and
another to provide operation on the negative-output half-cycle are necessary. The
combined half-cycles then provide an output for a full 360 of operation. This type of
connection is referred to as push-pull operation.
Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR)
(Thyristor)
Working of SCR
Equivalent Circuit of SCR
 Application of SCR

Used as Switch
To control power
Speed control of DC shunt motor
AC to DC converter
DC to DC Converter
Overlight Detector
 Oscilloscope

An oscilloscope, previously called an oscillograph and informally known as a

scope, CRO (for cathode-ray oscilloscope), or DSO (for the more modern digital
storage oscilloscope), is a type of electronic test instrument that allows observation
of constantly varying signal voltages, usually as a two-dimensional plot of one or
more signals as a function of time. Non-electrical signals (such as sound or
vibration) can be converted to voltages and displayed.
 Transducer
A transducer is a device that converts a signal in one
form of energy to another form of energy. Energy types
include (but are not limited to) electrical, mechanical,
electromagnetic (including light), chemical, acoustic
and thermal energy.
 Sensor
Sensor: A sensor is used to detect a parameter in one form
and report it in another form of energy, often an electrical
signal. For example, a temperature sensor.

Photo Sensor: A photoelectric sensor, or photo eye, is a

device used to detect the distance, absence, or presence of
an object by using a light transmitter, often infrared, and a
photoelectric receiver. They are used extensively in
industrial manufacturing.
 Strain
The Cauchy strain or engineering strain is expressed as the ratio of total
deformation to the initial dimension of the material body in which the
forces are being applied. The engineering normal strain or engineering
extensional strain or nominal strain e of a material line element or fiber
axially loaded is expressed as the change in length L per unit of the
original length L of the line element or fibers. The normal strain is
positive if the material fibers are stretched and negative if they are
compressed. Thus, we have

Where e is the engineering normal strain, L is the original length of the

fiber and l is the final length of the fiber.
 Temperature measurement
A thermocouple is a temperature-measuring device
consisting of two dissimilar conductors that contact each
other at one or more spots. It produces a voltage when the
temperature of one of the spots differs from the reference
temperature at other parts of the circuit.
The standard configuration for thermocouple usage is shown
in the figure. Briefly, the desired temperature Tsense is
obtained using three inputsthe characteristic function
E(T) of the thermocouple, the measured voltage V, and the
reference junctions' temperature Tref. The solution to the
equation E(Tsense) = V + E(Tref ) yields Tsense. These
details are often hidden from the user since the reference
junction block (with Tref thermometer), voltmeter, and
equation solver are combined into a single product.
 Pressure measurement
The Bourdon pressure gauge uses the principle that a
flattened tube tends to straighten or regain its circular
form in cross-section when pressurized. Although this
change in cross-section may be hardly noticeable, and
thus involving moderate stresses within the elastic
range of easily workable materials, the strain of the
material of the tube is magnified by forming the tube
into a C shape or even a helix, such that the entire tube
tends to straighten out or uncoil, elastically, as it is
pressurized.
 Speed measurement

Speed is an expression of how fast an object moves. An

object's speed is how much distance it travels in a
certain amount of time. Units of speed include miles
per hour (mph), centimeters per second (cm/sec or
cm/s), meters per second (m/sec or m/s), or
kilometers per hour (kph or km/hr). Measuring speed
involves observing the distance an object travels and
the amount of time elapsed and then calculating the
speed from those observations. Following are several
ways to measure speed: for a runner, sound and the
wind.
 Torque measurement

A torque sensor or torque transducer or torquemeter is a

device for measuring and recording the torque on a
rotating system, such as an engine, crankshaft,
gearbox, transmission, rotor, a bicycle. A strain gauge
is a device used to measure torque on an object. The
gauge is attached to the object by a suitable adhesive.
As the object is deformed, the foil is deformed, causing
its electrical resistance to change. This resistance
change, usually measured using a Wheatstone bridge.
So the change of resistance is proportional to the
applied torque on that object.
Thanks to all