Basic Metallurgy

Extractive Metallurgy deals with processing of the natural

occurring raw materials for converting those in to useful metals and
alloys

It also deals with reaction of metal with slags and gases.

Thus reflects on the compositional changes in the molten metal
before solidification of the weld pool.

Physical Metallurgy deals with identifying, controlling and varying

the properties of the metals and alloys as per requirements of the
mankind.

It takes into consideration the phase changes with temperature

and/or composition. It reflects on the causes of the change in
mechanical and physical properties.
 Metals and Alloys
Alloys are consisting of two or more
elements with major element being metal.

Pure metals normally do not impart the

highest possible properties therefore are
generally alloyed with other metallic or
non-metallic elements
 Physical Metallurgy.
Metals are crystalline in nature

Type of Crystal Structure

Cubic
Hexagonal
Tetragonal
Triclinic
Rhombohedral
Orthorhombic
Monoclinic
Common Crystal Structures

Simple Body - Centered Face - Centered

 Phase

Homogeneous, physically distinct (Co-existing) entity in

an alloy, characterised by crystal structure and lattice
parameter
 Single Phase Binary System
Physical Metallurgy.
Liquid Only
Liquid
Liquid
a3 + m.pt.
Solid
Temperature

Solids Of B

a2
b3 Solid Only
a1 b2 C3
C2
b1
m.pt. C1
Of A

Time-Temperature Cooling Curves

0% B 100% B
Composition
100% A 0% A

The construction of a simple equilibrium diagram of the solid solution

type using cooling curves of a series of alloys.
Two Phase Binary System
 Allotropic Modifications of iron
Iron has a distinction of existing in different
forms at different temperatures.
This property gives rise to many different
alloys and unique ability to alter properties
of iron alloys by heating and cooling at
different rates.
Heating and cooling of various metals and
alloys for attaining the desired mechanical
properties is known as Heat Treatment
 Phase of Iron
Iron exist as

Delta iron from melting temperature to 1410 C and form

solid solution with carbon known as delta-Ferrite

Gamma iron from 1410C to 910 C and form solid solution

with carbon known as Austenite
and

Alpha iron from 910 C to room temperature and form

solid solution with carbon known as alpha- ferrite
Iron Carbon Diagram
 Phases in Steel

Cementite
It is an intermetallic compound of iron and
carbon and exist as a phase.

Pearlite
This is consisting of thin alternate layers of
cementite and ferrite.
When no other alloying elements are present, its
composition will be nearly 0.8 % Carbon.
Pearlite imparts strength and toughness to the
steel.
 Non-equilibrium phases
Iron carbon diagram does not give complete
picture of the phases forming under faster
cooling rates. Additional phases which can form
are
Martensite,
Upper bainite ,
Lower bainite ,
Side plate ferrite or Widmanstatten ferrite
and
Acicular ferrite
Formation of these phase can be explained by
TTT Diagrams
TTT DIAGRAMS
CCT Diagram
 Critical Cooling Rate

Critical Cooling Rate is defined as the

lowest cooling rate which produces 100%
Martensite.
If hard martensitic structure is to be
avoided, cooling rate shall be slower than
critical cooling rate
Structures Forming in Steel
 Heat-Treatment

Various Heat Treatments

Annealing
Normalising
Spherodising
Hardening
Age Hardening
Stress Relieving
 Annealing

A term denoting a treatment, consisting of

heating to and holding at a suitable
temperature, followed by cooling at a slow
rate, used primarily to soften, but also to
simultaneously produce desired changes
in other properties or in microstructure.
 Stress Relieving

A process to reduce internal residual stresses

in a metal object by heating the object to a
temperature below lower critical and holding
for a proper time at that temperature.
This treatment may be applied to relieve
stresses induced by casting, quenching,
normalizing, machining, cold working or
welding.
 Hardening of Iron

Martensite is very hard phase when

containing some carbon.
It can be obtained by fast cooling of steel
from austenitic condition.
To impart some toughness, it needs to be
softened by tempering treatment
 Tempering
The object of tempering is to reduce the
brittleness of the hardened steel and to
remove the internal strains caused by the
sudden cooling in the quenching bath.
The tempering process consists in heating the
steel by various means to a certain
temperature and then cooling it. On reheating
to a temperature of about 300 to 750F., a
softer and tougher structure is formed.
Effect of Tempering on Mechanical
Properties
 Effects of Alloying Elements
Effect of alloying elements in steel Purpose of alloying.
* Strengthening of ferrite.
* Improved corrosion resistance
* Better hardenability
* Better grain size control greater strength
* Improved machinability
* Improved high or low temp. Stability
* Improved ductility
* Better wear resistance
* Improves cutting ability
 Factors Affecting Martensite Formation
The hardenability increases with increasing
austenite grain size.
Most metallic alloying elements slow down the
ferrite and pearlite reactions, and so also
increase hardenability.
This means that addition of alloying elements
increases the tendency in the steels to form
martensite.
In other words even slow cooling welds will
have increasing possibility of martensite
formation.
 CE and Process Controll
For CE%<0.14 Excellent weldability,
no special precautions necessary
0.14<CE%<0.45 Martensite is more
likely to form, and modest preheats with
low hydrogen electrodes become
necessary
CE%>0.45 Extreme complications,
weld cracking is very likely, hence preheat
in the range 100-400C and low hydrogen
electrodes are required