Dam

fig
 INTRODUCTION

A dam is a hydraulic structure

constructed across a river or a natural stream
to create a reservoir for impounding water.
The water stored in reservoir is used
for various purposes, such as irrigation,
municipal and industrial supply, hydropower
generation recreation, flood control, etc.

2
Due to construction of the dam, water level in
the river at its upstream side is very much
increased, and a large area may be submerged
depending upon the water spread of the
reservoir so formed.
A distinction should be made
between a dam and a weir. A weir is also a
structure built across a river. However, its
purpose is not to store water but to divert
it. Thus there is no reservoir on the
upstream of a weir.
 CLASSIFICATION OF DAMS

(a) classification according to use

1. Storage dam:

storage dams are constructed to store water

during the rainy season when there is a large
flow in the river. The stored water is utilized
later during the period when the flow in the
river is reduced.
For example,
Gravity dam
Earthen dam
Rockfill dam.
Arch dam
2. Diversion dam:

A diversion dam is constructed for the

purpose of diverting water of the river into an
off-taking canal. A diversion dam is usually of
low height and has a small storage reservoir
on its upstream.

For example,
Weir
barrage
3. Detention dams

Detention dams are constructed for flood

control. A detention dam retards the flow of
water in the river on its downstream during
floods by storing some flood water. The water
retained in the reservoir is released gradually at
a controlled rate.

For example,
Debris dam
(b) Classification according to hydraulic
design:

According to hydraulic design dams may be

classified as:

1. Overflow dam
2. Non-overflow dam
1. Overflow dam:

An overflow dam is the one which is

designed to carry surplus discharge over its
crest. Its crest level is kept lower than the top
of the other portion of the dam.
Such dams are generally made of concrete or
masonry. An overflow dam is commonly
known as spillway.
2. Non-Overflow dam:

A non-overflow dam is the one in which the top

of the dam is kept at a higher elevation than the
maximum expected high flood level (HFL)
Water is not permitted to overtop the dam.

For example,
Gravity dam
Earthen dam
Rockfill dam
(c) classification according to materials:

According to materials dams are classified as:

1. Rigid dams
2. Non-rigid dams
1. Rigid dams

Rigid dams are those which are constructed of

rigid materials such as concrete, masonry, steel,
timber, etc. These dams deflect and deform
very little when subjected to water pressure and
other forces.
For example,
Concrete gravity dam
Solid masonry dam
Arch dam
Steel dam
2. Non-rigid dams:

Non-rigid dams are those which are

constructed of non-rigid materials such as
earth, and/or Rockfill. There are relatively
large settlements and deformations
in a non-rigid dam.

For example,
Earth dam
Rockfill dam
(d) classification according to structural
behaviour:

Based on structural behavior, dams are

classified as:
1. Gravity dam
2. Arch dam
3. Buttress dam
4. Earthen dam
5. Rockfill dam
1.GRAVITY DAM

A gravity dam is one in which the

external forces such as water pressure, wave
pressure, silt pressure, uplift pressure etc. are
resisted by the weight of the dam itself. Thus
the stability of a gravity dam depends upon its
weight.
 The gravity dams are usually made of
cement concrete. In the past, the gravity dams
were made of stone masonry, but now the
masonry dams are rarely constructed. A gravity
dam may be either straight or curved in plan.
Advantages of Gravity dams:

1. Relatively more strong and durable than

earth dams
2. Can be constructed of any height
3. Earth dams cannot be used as overflow
dams.
4. Requires the least maintenance.
5. Cheaper in long run. The benefit-cost
ratio is always higher.
Disadvantages:

1. The initial cost of gravity dam is always

higher than an earth dam.
2. Mechanized plants for manufacturing and
transporting concrete are required.
3. Require skilled labour for its construction.
4. It is very difficult to allow subsequent rise
in the height of a gravity dam.
2.ARCH DAME

fig
 An arch dam is curved in plan, with its
convexity towards the upstream side. Arch
dam transfers the water pressure and other
forces mainly to the abutments by an arch
action.
The section of an arch dam is
approximately triangular like a gravity dam
but the section is comparatively thinner.
Advantages:

1. Particularly adapted where the length is

small in proportion to the height.
2. Because of much less base width, the
problems of uplift pressure are minor
3. For a given height, the section of an arch
dam is much lesser than a corresponding
gravity dam
4. An arch dam can be constructed on moderate
foundation.
Disadvantages:

1. It required skilled labour and sophisticated

formwork.
2. The speed of construction is usually slow.
3. It requires very strong abutments capable
of resisting arch thruts
.
BUTTRESS DAM:

A buttress dam consists of a number of

buttresses or piers dividing the space. To retain
water between these buttresses, panels are
constructed of horizontal arches or flat slabs.

Types of buttress dam:

1. Deck type buttress dam.
2. Multiple arch type buttress dam.
3. Multiple dome type buttress dam
4. Bulk head type buttress dam
 When the panels consists of arches, it is
known as multiple arch type buttress dam.
If the panels consist of flat slab, it is known as
deck type buttress dam.

fig
Advantages:

1. Less massive than a gravity dam. It can be

constructed on a relatively weak foundation.
2. The spacing of buttresses may be adjusted to
utilize zones of good foundations
3. The water load acts normal to the inclined deck.
Hence the vertical component of the water load
stabilises the dam against both overturning and
sliding. Thus, it possesses a higher factor of
safety.
4. The ice pressure is relatively unimportant since
the ice tends to slide over the inclined u/s deck

5. The amount of concrete required is about to

1 /2 to 1/3 of the concrete required for a gravity
dam of the same height.
Disadvantages:

1. skilled labours and more shuttering is required.

2. Buttress dam is more susceptible to willful
damage.
3. The number of water seals to be provided and
maintained for a buttress dam are usually more
than that of other dams.
 EARTH DAMS AND ROCKFILL
DAMS:
Earth dam:
Earth dam is an embankment type dam.
These are made of locally available soils and
gravels and therefore are most common types of
dams used up to moderate heights.
Their construction involves utilization of
materials in the natural state requiring a minimum
of processing.
Earth dams are now becoming more common.
Types of earth dams:

1. Rolled fill dam

2 Hydraulic fill dam
3. Semi hydraulic fill dam
 1. Rock Fill dam:
A rockfill dam is an embankment which uses
variable sizes of rock to provide stability and an
impervious membrane to provide water tightness.
Main parts of rock fill dam are:
(1) dumped rockfill at the down stream
(2) upstream rubble cushion.
(3) upstream impervious facing resting on rubble
cushion.
(4) upstream cutoff to check under seepage
Advantages of earth and rockfill dam:
1. Earth dams can be constructed almost on any
type of available foundations.
2. Unskilled labours also can be employed in the
construction.
3. They are cheaper than other type of dams.
4. They can be subsequently raised in height
without much difficulty.
5. Earth dams are more earthquake resistant than
gravity dams.
6. Earth dams can be constructed in a relatively
short period.
Disadvantages of earth and rockfili dams:
1. An earth dam cannot be designed as an overflow
section. A spillway has to be located away from
the dam.
2. They are not suitable at locations where heavy
downpour is more common.
3. The maintenance cost is quite high.
4. It requires constant supervision.
5. They are more vulnerable to damage by floods \
and fail suddenly without sufficient warning.
6. Earth dams are not suitable for narrow gorges
with steep slopes
 FACTORS GOVERNING SELECTION
oF TYPE oF DAM:
The various factors which affect the choice of the
type of dam are:

1. Topography
2. Geology and foundation conditions
3. Availability of construction materials.
4. Spillway size and location.
5. Roadway
6. Length and height of dam
7. Life of dam.
8. Earthquake zone
9. Cost
2. Geology and foundation conditions:

All the forces acting on the dam including its

weight are transmitted to the foundation.
As such the foundation conditions at the dam site
need to be thoroughly investigated.
If the foundation consists of sound rock with no
fault or fissures, any type of dam can be constructed
on it.
Poor rock or gravel foundations are suitable for
earth dam, rockfill dam or low concrete gravity
dam.
Silt and fine sand foundations have the problems
of settlement seepage and toe erosion.
Hence, such foundations are suitable only for
either earth dam or low concrete gravity dam but
not rockfill dams. Gravity dams or rockfill dams
are not suitable on clay foundations.
3. Availability of construction materials:

The cost of construction of a particular type of

dam depend upon the availability of the
construction materials in near by area so that
transportation charges are reduced.
If sand , gravel and crushed stone is easily
available, a concrete may be more suitable. If
however, coarse and fine grained soils are
available an earth dam may be suitable.
4. Spillway size and location:

Spillway is a structure provided for a dam to

pass surplus water or flood.
It is an overflow portion of the dam. Thee size
and type of spillway are mainly decided by the
magnitude of the flood to be byepassed and its
location depends on the site conditions.
If a large spillway capacity is required to be
provided, an overflow concrete gravity dam
should be preferred.
Where small spillway capacity is required and
where separate site for spillway location is
available an earth dam may be preferred.

5. Road way

If a roadway is to be passed over the top of the

dam, an earth dam or gravity dam would be
preferred.
6. Length and Height of dam
If the length of the dam is very long and its height
is low, an earth dam would be a better choice. If
the length is small, but height is more, gravity dam
is preferred.

7. Life of dam.
masonry gravity dams have very long life. Earth
and rockfill dams have intermediate life. However
timber dams are adopted only for temporary
storage
8. Earthquake zone

If a dam is to be constructed in an area that is

subjected to earthquake shocks, then the selection
of the type of dam should be such that it is able to
resist the earthquake shocks without damage.
Normally earth dam and concrete gravity dam is
preferred in earthquake prone areas.
9. cost
Overall cost of construction of dam and the cost
of subsequent maintenance would often become
the deciding factor in the choice of the type of
dam.
cost of construction of dam is affected by the
availability and price of The construction
materials and labour.
The initial cost of concrete gravity dam is high
but subsequent maintenance cost is low.
While in case of earth dam, initial cost of
construction is low but maintenance cost is high
SELECTION oF SITE FOR A DAM
The selection of a suitable site for a dam depends
on the following factors:
1. Suitable foundation.
2. Topography
3. Site for spillway
4. Construction materials
5. Reservoir and catchment area
6. Communication
7. Locality
8. Cost
1. Suitable foundation:

suitable foundations should be available at the site

selected for a particular type of dam. For gravity
dams, sound rock is essential. For earth dams, any
type of foundation is suitable with proper
treatment. In general, however, the foundation
should be free from seams, open pockets, or fault
planes.
No dam should be built across a fault known to
have been active in recent times. The best
conditions are when a dam can be built on one
uniform formation.

2. Topography
As far as possible the dam should be located
where the river has a narrow gorge which opens
out upstream to create a large reservoir. In that
case, the length of the dam would be small and the
capacity of the reservoir on its upstream would be
large.
3. Site for spillway:

site for the location of a separate spillway is

essential especially in the case of earth or rockfill
dam. However in the case of gravity dam, spillway
may be located at its middle. The best site for a
dam may be considered to be one where a deep
gorge and a flank saddle) at its sides are separated
by a hillock In that case the main dam can be
located in the gorge and the spillway can be
constructed in the saddle.
4. Construction materials:

The dam requires a large quantity of materials for

its construction. Suitable type of material in
sufficient quantity should be available at or near the
dam site to reduce the cost.

5. Reservoir and catchment area

The reservoir site should be such that quantity of
leakage through its side and bed in minimum.
The reservoir site should be such that it avoids or
excludes water from those tributaries which carry a
high percentage of silt in water.
The site should be such that a deep reservoir is
formed.
The cost of land and property submerged in the
water spread area should be minimum.
The resevoir basin on the upstream of the dam
should preferably be cup shaped, with a flat bottom
but steep slopes.
6. Communication
It would be preferable to select a site which is
connected by a road or rail link or can be
conveniently connected to the site for
transporation of cement, machinery, labour, other
cquipment.

7. Locality
The surroundings near the site should preferably
be healthy and free of mosquitoes etc. as labour
and staff colonies have to be constructed near the
site.
8. Cost

The site should be such that it entails the minimum

overall cost of the project, including subsequent
maintenance
 SPILLWAYS
A spillway is a structure constructed at or near the
dam site to dispose of surplus water from the
reservoir to the channel downstream. Spillways are
provided for all dams as a safety measure against
ping and the consequent damages and failure. A
spillway acts as a safety valve for the dam, because
as soon as the water level in the reservoir rises
above a predetermined level, excess water is
discharged safely to the downstream channel, and
the dam is not damaged.
Essential requirements of a spillway:

1. The spillway must have sufficient capacity.

2. It must be hydraulically and structurally safe.
3. The surface of the spillway must be erosion
resistant.
4. It should be provided with some device for the
dissipation of excess energy.
5. The spillway must be so located that it provides
safe disposal of water,
i.e. discharge must not erode d/s toe of the dam
Factors affecting spillway capacity:

1. inflow flood
2. available storage capacity
3. discharge capacity of other outlet works
4. whether the spillway is gated or ungated.
5. Possible damage if the capacity is exceeded.
Types of spillways based on utility:

1. Main Spillway
2. Subsidiary spillway or auxillary spillway
3. Emergency spillway
1. Main Spillway:
A main spillway or service spillway is the one
which is the first to come into operation and is
designed to pass the entire spillway design flood.
This spillway is necessary for all and in most of
the dams, it is the only spillway.

2. Subsidiary spillway or auxiliary spillway:

In some cases, where site conditions are
favourable it may be economical to provide an
auxillary spillway in conjunction with a smaller
main spillway.
In such cases the main spillway is designed to pass
only small floods which are likely to occur
frequently and when these floods are exceeded the
main spillway is assisted by the auxiliary spillway
in passing the excess flood water. The total
capacity is then equal to the sum of the capacities
of the main and the auxillary spillways.
3. Emergency spillway:

An emergency spillway is one which is provided in

addition to the main spillway but it comes into
operation only during emergency which may arise
at any time and the same might not have been
considered in the normal design of the main
spillway. Thus it is provided for additional safety
during emergency.
cases of emergency:

(1) an enforced shutdown of the outlet works

(2) a malfunctioning of spillway gates
(3) the necessity for bypassing the regular spillway
because of damage
Types of spillway based on most prominent :

According to the prominent features pertaining to

the various components of the spillway such as
control structures, discharge channel, etc.
the spillways may be classified in the following
types:
1. Free overfall or straight drop spillway
2. ogee or overflow spillway
3. Side channel spillway
4. Chute or open channel or trough spillway
5. Tunnel spillway
6. Shaft or morning glory spillway
1. Free overfall or straight drop spillway:

A free overfall or straight drop spillway is a type of

spillway in which the control structure consists of a
low-height, narrow crested weir and the d/s face is
vertical or nearly vertical so that the water falls
freely more or less vertical.

The overflowing water may discharge as a free jet

(nappe) clearly away from the d/s face of the
spillway, as in the case of a sharp crested weir.
 As such occasionally the crest of this spillway is
extended in the form of an overhanging lip, Fig.
4.20 (b), to direct small discharge away from the d/s
face of the overflow section. The underside of the
nappe is ventilated sufficiently to prevent pulsating
or fluctuating jet.

If no artificial protection is provided on the down

stream side of the overflow section, the falling jet
will usually cause the scouring of the stream bed
and will form a plunge pool.
2. ogee or overflow spillway:

An ogee or overflow spillway is the most

commonly used spillway. It is widely used with
gravity dams, arch dams and buttress dams. Several
earth dams are also provided with this type of
spillway as a separate structure.
An ogee spillway is an improvement upon the free
overfall spillway. The essential difference between
the free overfall spillway and ogee spillway is that
in the case of free overfall spillway, water flowing
over the crest of the spillway drops vertically as a
free jet away from the downstream face, whereas
in the case of an ogee spillway, the water flowing
over the crest is guided smoothly over the end is
made to glide over the d/s face of the spillway.
3. Side channel spillway:
A side channel spillway is the one in which the
flow, after passing over a weir or ogee crest, is
carried away by the channel running essentially
parallel to the crest.
The side channel spillway is usually constructed in
a narrow canyon where sufficient space is not
available for an overflow spillway. A side channel
spillway is also usually required in a narrow valley
where there is neither a suitable saddle nor wide
side flanks to accommodate a chute spillway.
4. Chute or open channel or Trough spillway:

chute or open channel spillway is provided in the

following situations:

(1) When it is not possible to provide overflow

spillway
(2) When valley is narrow
(3) When the streambed is erodible
(4) When separate site for spillway is not
available.
A chute spillway is the one which passes the
surplus discharge through a steep sloped open
channel, called a chute or trough, placed either
along a dam abutment or through a saddle.
Generally this type of spillway is provided on earth
or rock fill dam, and is isolated from the main dam.
Its crest is kept normal to its centre line. It consists
of a discharge channel to the river in an excavated
trench which is usually paved with concrete in
whole or in part. The chute is sometimes of
constant width, but usually narrowed for economy.
5. Tunnel spillway:

A conduit or tunnel spillway is the one in which a

closed channel is used to convey the discharge
around or near a dam. The closed channel may be
in the form of a vertical or inclined shaft and a
horizontal tunnel or conduit. The control structure
for this spillway may be in the form of an overflow
crest, vertical or inclined orifice entrance and side
channel crest. The conduit or tunnel is designed to
flow partly full and it is not allowed to flow full
because siphonic action may develop due to
negative pressure being developed in the conduit.
6. Shaft or Morning glory spillway:
Shaft spillway is the one which has horizontally
positioned lip through which water enters and then
drops through a vertical or sloping shaft and then to
a horizontal conduit which convey water past the
dam. A shaft spillway can often be used where there
is inadequate space for other types of spillways.
Thus, on the earth dam location, if there is no
enough space or if the topography prevent the use
of a chute or side channel spillway. (3) closed
discharge channel
the best alternative would be to use shaft spillway.
A shaft spillway consists of three main elements:
(1) overflow control weir or morning glory
(2) vertical control

There are two general types of shaft spillways:

(1) Standard crest type
(2) Flat crest type