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Lubrication classification
Hydrodynamic or full fluid film lubrication it is said to exist when moving surfaces
are separated completely by pressure of continuous unbroken film or layer of
lubricant .eg running journal bearing
Boundary lubrication (thin film lubrication ) it exists when operating conditions
are such that it is not possible to establish full fluid film .friction between surfaces
in relative movement is high and some degree of metal to metal contact and wear
occurs .journal bearing at start /stop
Partial full fluid film lubrication this may be transitory or permanent .it may be
regarded as an intermediate condition between boundary and hydrodynamic
lubrication .
A further sub-classification is hydrostatic lubrication which is mainly confined to
slow moving often heavily loaded mechanisms .it is a form of hydrodynamic
lubrication where pressure within oil film causing separation of two surfaces is not
self generated but is supplied from external source by oil under pressure from
pump .
Another form of lubrication is Elasto hydrodynamic lubrication .this applies mainly
to point or line contact which occurs in rolling or sliding mechanism such as roller
bearing and meshing gear teeth .under such conditions hydrodynamic lubrication
does not apply fully but thin film or squeeze film lubrication limits metal to metal
contact .two essential factors are involved- elastic deformation of metals and effect
of high pressure on lubricant .
Fluid Film Lubrication fluid film lubrication is ideal condition for any machinery to
operate .friction is at its minimum ,therefore mechanical efficiency is maximum
and wear of moving parts is eliminated .essential factors affecting establishment of
fluid film for complete separation are :
1.Viscosity of oil higher viscosity more readily fluid film will be formed
2.Speed of rotation or sliding higher speed easier to form fluid film .
3.Bearing load higher the load more difficult to achieve fluid film lubrication
4.Fineness of surface finish
5.In journal bearings ,diameter of journal ,length of bearing and bearing clearances
6. There must be ample continuous supply of oil .
7.There must be convergence between fixed and moving surfaces .
Tilting Pad thrust bearing if a sharp edged block is moved over another metal
surface liberally supplied with oil ,the leading edge scrapes away oil in front of it
.very little oil enters between relative moving surfaces so that boundary lubrication
conditions prevail .if leading edge of block is rounded or chamfered it will ride up
on the oil in front of it thus creating oil wedge between two surfaces .pressure
built up within oil film will support load and full fluid film condition will be
established .
This principle is utilised in Michell and Kingsbury tilting pad thrust bearings .a
number of white metal faced flat thrust pads are provided ,they are pivoted at the
back ,prevented by stops from rotating .they face a machined thrust collar on
engine shaft .leading edge of each pad is chamfered and bearing is maintained full
of oil under pressure .rotating collar forces in oil ,pads tilt to form individual
tapered oil film .
Self generated pressure completely separates the collar and pads .
Oil film thickness varies from 0.013 mm (0.0005 in ) to 0.05 mm (0.02 in ) .
Coefficient of friction varies from 0.001 to 0.005 .
Journal bearings in this shaft or journal is surrounded by plain bearing with
diameter slightly greater than that of journal .mostly bearing lining is tin-based
white metal .under heavy load copper lead ,lead bronze ,aluminium-tin are used
for lining .
Diesel engines bearing load can be 56-105 kg/cm2 for main bearing ,70-140
kg/cm2 for connecting rod or bottom end bearing and 169 kg/cm2 for crosshead
or gudgeon pin bearing .
Bearing clearance must be carefully controlled .if clearance is large ,greater is
eccentricity between journal and bearing therefore greater convergence which is
favourable to establishment of oil wedge .if clearance is too large end leakage of oil
from bearing becomes excessive reducing load carrying pressure in oil film .if
designed clearance is too small it would physically prevent journal floating on oil
film
Bearing length is now receiving more attention .previously it was usual to install as
long bearing as possible to reduce adverse effects of side leakage .but many long
shafts deflect considerably under high loading condition .in such case major part of
load is carried at the ends of bearings which can lead to bearing failure .it is now
costomary to install square bearings ie length /diameter = unity ( L/D =1 ) or even
shorter bearings in some machinery .
For practical engineers relationship between coefficient of friction ,journal speed
,bearing pressure and oil viscosity can be simply explained by the equation :
Free spread
It is the amount bearing shell is bigger than housing bore when measured over
mating surfaces .it is not to be confused with crush height .free spread serves to
facilitate bearing installation by preventing shell from moving and falling out .
A bearing with no or negative free spread must not be installed because danger of
contact between shaft and running surface near mating faces is high which can
lead to bearing failure .
Bearing clearance and its measurement
Two most feasible methods are :
a) Measuring pin diameter dz by micrometer and bore diameter after bearing
installation by precision bore gauge .averaging of results and computing the
difference will give clearance .
b) Quicker and easier is to check by Plastigage .it is a special thin soft strip which is
inserted in pin and bearing clearance .plastigage strip widens when compressed
during tightening of bolts .final width is an indication of clearance which can be
read from a scale .but this method gives rough value of clearance
Bearings M A N B& W MC Engines
Bearing metals :
Tin based white metal it is an alloy with 88% Sn .rest of alloy composition is
antimony Sb ,copper Cu ,cadmium Cd and small amount of other metals that are
added to improve fineness of grain structure and homogeneity .this is important
for load carrying and sliding properties .lead (Pb ) content is an impurity because
fatigue strength reduces with increasing lead content .Pb should not exceed 0.2 % .
Tin based white metal is used in main bearing ,crank pin bearings ,crosshead
bearings ,guide shoes and thrust bearings due to very good load carrying capacity
and sliding properties .
Tin Aluminium (AlSn 40) it is a composition of aluminium and tin where tin is
trapped in a three dimensional mesh of aluminium .in this 40% is tin .sliding
properties of this are similar to those of tin based white metal buy loading
capacity is higher than tin based white metal .
Here tin gives good embedability and sliding properties and aluminium mesh
functions as an effective load absorber .
Overlayers
It is a galvanic coating of 90% lead (Pb) and 10 % tin (Sn ) .it is applied directly on
white metal sliding surface of bearing .thickness of coating is 0.02 to 0.03 mm .it is
a soft and ductile coating .its main objective is to ensure good embedability and
conformity between bearing sliding surface and pin surface geometry .
Flashlayer Tin (Sn )
A flashlayer is 100 % tin layer with thickness 2-micro meter to 5-micrometer .this
coating is applied all over it primarily prevents corrosion of bearing .it also
functions as effective dry lubricant when new bearings are installed .
Journal /Pin
Surface Roughness : increased surface roughness can be caused by :
a) Abrasive damage due to contamination of system oil .
b) Corrosive damage due to sea water contamination of system oil (acidic ) or
oxidation of journals due to condensate .
c) Spark erosion (only in main bearings ).
With increasing journal/pin roughness a level will be reached where oil film
thickness is no longer sufficient causing metal contact between journal /pin and
bearing sliding surface .this will cause white metal to adhere to journal/pin ,giving
surface a silvery white appearance .when such condition is observed then
journal/pin must be reconditioned by polishing .
Spark Erosion
It is caused by a voltage difference between main bearing and journal surface
.cause of potential is development of galvanic element ships hull ,sea water and
propeller shaft/crank shaft .
Oil film acts as a dielectric .puncture voltage in bearing depends upon thickness of
oil film .(puncture voltage is the voltage at which insulator is punctured electrically
when subjected to gradually increasing voltage ).
With increasing engine rating load on main bearing is increased .this will reduce oil
film thickness and enable discharge to take place at lower voltage level .
Since hydrodynamic oil film thickness varies through out the cycle discharge will
take place roughly at the same instant during each cycle ie when film thickness is
minimum .accordingly roughening will be concentrated in certain areas on journal
surface .
In early stages the roughened areas can resemble pitting erosion but later on as
roughness increases small craters will scrape off and pick up white metal hence
silvery appearance .
To ensure protection against spark erosion potential level must be kept at
maximum 80 mV which is possible with high earthing device .if an earthing device
is installed its effectiveness must be checked regularly .spark erosion is only
observed in main bearings and main bearing journals .
Surface Geometry
Such as roundness defect ,conicity ,barrel form and misalignment may give rise to
operational difficulties .such abnormal cases of journal/pin geometry and
misalignment may occur after a repair .
Undersize Journal/Pin
In case of severe damage it may become necessary to recondition journal/pin by
grinding to undersize .final undersize should be selected as far as possible as a half
or full millimetre .this is advisable to in order to simplify production and availability
of undersize bearings for emergencies .
a) Main and crankpin journals can be ground to 3 mm undersize ; undersize below
this value require special investigation of bearing assembly .
b) In service cross head pins can be :
1. Polished to Dnominal-0.15 mm as minimum diameter
2. Offset to a maximum of 0.3 mm and ground
In both cases since standard bearings are used bearing top clearances will increase
depending upon surface condition of pin to be reconditioned .Offset value used for
grinding must be stamped clearly on pin .
Check without opening up
a)Stop the engine and engage turning gear
b) Just after stopping engine when oil is still circulating check that uniform jets
appear from all oil grooves in crosshead bearing lower shell and guide shoes .oil
flow from main and crank pin bearing must be compared from unit to unit ;there
should be similarity in flow patterns .during this operation turning gear must be
engaged and main starting valve and starting air distributor must be blocked .
c) Stop lube oil circulating pump and turn crank throw for that cylinder unit to BDC
position .
d) Check top clearance with feeler gauge .change in clearance must be negligible
when compared readings from last inspection .
e) Examine sides of bearing shell ,guide shoes and guide strips and check for
squeezed out or loosened metal ;look for white metal pieces in oil pan .
f) In following cases bearings must be dismantled for inspection :
1.Bearing running hot
2. Oil flow and oil jets uneven ,reduced or missing
3.Increase of clearance since previous reading larger than 0.05 mm
4.White metal squeezed out ,dislodged or missing at bearing ,guide shoe or guide
strip ends .
Cracks
Crack development is a fatigue phenomenon due to increased dynamic stress level
in local areas of bearing metal .
In case of excessive local heat input fatigue strength of white metal /tin aluminium
will decrease and thermal cracks will develop at normal dynamic stress level .
A small cluster of hairline cracks develops into a network of cracks .at an advanced
stage increased notch effect and effect of hydrodynamic oil pressure will tear white
metal from steel back and produce loose and dislodged metal pieces .
Cause for cracks
a) Insufficient strength of bonding between white metal and steel back (tinning or
casting error )
b) Crack development after a short working period may be due to misalignment
(twist between bearing cap and housing ) or geometric irregularities (step
between contact faces of bearing shell or incorrect oil wedge geometry )
c) High local loading eg during running in load is concentrated on few local high
spots of white metal .
Bearing with cracks can not be repaired .
For crosshead bearing wear limit is 50% reduction of oil wedge length .if bearing
surface is in good shape shell can be used again after oil wedges have been
extended to normal length .
Surface roughness
Surface roughness should be within limits
1. For main and crank pin journal
a) new journal 0.8 Ra
b ) roughness approaching 1.6 Ra journal to recondition
2. For crosshead pin
a) new or repolished 0.05 Ra
b) acceptable in service 0.05-0.1 Ra
c) repolishing if over 0.1 Ra
Evaluation of pin/journal roughness can be performed
1. With electronic roughness tester
2. With Ruko tester .here surface of pin /journal is compared with specimens of
Ruko tester .when performing this test pin surface and ruko tester must be
perfectly clean and dry .hold the tester close to surface and compare .if
required run your finger nail over pin/journal surface and Ruko specimen to
compare and determine roughness level .
Ra is arithmetic mean /average of absolute values of profile ht deviations from
mean line recorded within evaluation length .simply speaking Ra is average of set
of individual measurements of surface peaks and valleys .
Repairs of bearings on spot
a) 1.Overlayer wiping in corsshead bearing is not serious ;can be repaired by
correct use of scraper .
2. Hard contact on edges of cross head bearing is normally due to galvanic build up
of overlay .this is sometimes seen when inspecting inspecting newly installed
bearings . It is remedied by relieving these areas with straight edge or other
suitable tool .
3. In extreme cases of white metal wiping oil wedges in cross head bearing may
disappear .in that case shell should be replaced .
Cracked bearing metal surface can not be repaired ;bearing must be replaced .
Main bearing
It can be thick shell type or thin shell type .
Before dismantling main bearings examination must be made to check that marks
locating the position of keep and bearing shell are correct .the marks usually cut in
with letter and figure type signify bearing number and the way it is located .it may
be that spare main bearing has been fitted in an engine in which case direction in
which bearing is located may not be indicated and some location identifying mark
should then be made with a letter or figure stamp .
Various means are adopted to facilitate removal of lower half of bearing .a
common method is to fit a clamp on crank web adjacent to bearing which has to
be removed .engine is then turned slowly with turning gear and bearing is pushed
round out of its pocket by a projection on the clamp .when bearing has been
turned for a half revolution it will be sitting on top of the journal free of the pocket
.it is then lifted off the journal and swung clear of crank webs with a set of chain
blocks rigged above the bearing and another set rigged near crankcase door
If bearing bore has been machined slightly eccentric to outer shell of bearing
engine must be turned in one direction to remove bearing and in opposite
direction to replace it .
Some very large engines the support for bearing in the pocket of bedplate is made
with a small hollow area so that a pocket is formed .this pocket is then filled with
oil and oil is put under pressure with a hand pressure pump .oil under pressure lifts
the bearing in the pocket and reduces turning effort required to turn bearing out of
pocket .
In other engines it is necessary to place hydraulic jacks under the webs on each
side of bearing to be removed .wood blocks are placed below the jacks to
distribute load evenly over the bottom of crank pit and jacks are pumped up so
that weight of crankshaft is transferred from bearing to jacks .bearing is then free
in the pocket .an eye bolt is fitted into the side of bearing and bearing is pulled
round in its pocket with a chain block .when bearing is half out of its pocket eye
bolt is transferred to another position so that bearing can be completely turned
out of its pocket .
What examination must be carried out when a crankpin bearing of large slow
speed engine is opened up for survey .?
When bearing has been exposed the white metal is examined for cracks ,signs of
wiping and condition of oil grooves which should be dealt with as mentioned
above .foot of connecting rod must be checked for cracks at the sides of bolt hole
and underside of foot must also be examined for cracks running across under the
line of run out of fillet .contact surface between connecting rod and top flat
surface of crankpin bearing is also checked for fretting .
Threads of bolts must be examined for deformation and stretching ;bolts should
also be hung up and sounded with a light hammer for detecting cracks .the fillets in
the reduced sections of bolt must be examined for start of cracks which could lead
to eventual bolt fracture .if any bolts are suspect crack detection test should be
applied and if any cracks are confirmed new bolts must be fitted .crankpin should
be examined for cracks particularly in the region of oil hole in crankpin .condition
of working surface of pin and reference marks between crankpin and crank web
are important points to note .
It is a good practice to place a straight edge on top of crankpin when on top centre
and at 90 deg ,180 deg and 270 deg from this position .the profile of wearing
surface of pin can then be checked and some indication will be given if high spots
or areas are being left at centre of crankpin in way of circumferential groove of
bearing and at the sides of crankpin .although no action may be taken to remove
high areas on unworn parts of crankpin it is to be aware of their presence in case
difficulties arising in alignment of running gear or operation of running gear
bearing .
If crosshead and crankpin bolts are insufficiently tightened what effect does it have
on bolt ?.
Insufficient tightening can have serious consequences even if bearing continues to
operate without becoming slack .When a bearing bolt is tightened it is subjected to
tensile stress .
During operation changing inertia load on bearing keeps causes variation in bolt
loading which adds to loading from tightening bolt nuts .When a bolt is
insufficiently tightened stress range in bolt is greater in service even though
maximum stress may be less .since fatigue is function of stress range rather than
maximum stress an insufficiently tightened bolt is more liable to fatigue failure
than one which is correctly tightened .
When white metal lined crosshead bearings fail in service what are usual types of
failure ?
Various types of failure occur in cross head bearing linings .Some failures if found
early can be rectified so that bearing can continue in service satisfactorily .In other
forms of failure lining must be condemned and bearing remetalled . Failure of
white metal in less severe forms progresses so that bearing must be remetalled
eventually .
Forms of failure are :
1.Cracking of white metal
2.Fatigue failure of white metal
3.Squeezing of white metal so that oil grooves are partially blocked or obliterated
;oil holes may be partially blocked or wholly blocked in extreme cases .
4.Failure by overheating when bearing surface of white metal becomes plastic or
even melts .
5.Corrosion
Failure of white metal by cracking or fatigue does not normally have any indication
under normal operation .if it is present it is usually found at the time lower half of
bearing is exposed for examination .Failure by squeezing or overheating may
become apparent during engine operation .it is often noticed when checking
bearing clearance or during crankcase examination .Failure by corrosion is usually
found when examination is carried out on the bearing s ,corrosion of white metal
usually accompanied by corrosion of cross head pin .Form of corrosion will depend
on nature of contamination of lub oil .
Q .How can damage occur to crosshead bearings in slow speed propulsion engine
when engine is operating under manoeuvring conditoins ?
Many engines that operate on medium and high viscosity fuel at sea use diesel fuel
to manoeuvre main engines when proceeding in coastal waters or in and out of
port .Medium and high viscosity fuels require much earlier injection than diesel
fuel to obtain good combustion .when an engine which has been timed for
cheaper grade slower burning fuel uses diesel oil which is faster burning then rate
of pressure increases and maximum combustion pressure may exceed that for
which engine was designed .Normally lower operating power of engine caters for
this pressure rise and keeps maximum pressure within safe bounds .IT is a good
practice to take maximum cylinder pressure whenever a new supply of diesel oil
Is being used for first time under manoeuvring conditions .
When ships with bridge control are being controlled from navigating bridge master
must be made aware of maximum speed at which engine can be safely operated
on diesel fuel so that engine speed is kept within safe limit .excessive combustion
pressure will be shown by cylinder relief valve lifting .But operating just below
relief valve lifting pressure over extended period can easily cause damage to
bearings and other engine parts .if there were any malfunction of relief valves
then high combustion pressure may go unnoticed until bearing damage was found
.
If on opening up a crosshead bearing it was found that white metal was cracked
,how would you judge whether bearing was fit for further service .?
First the white metal in cracked area must be examined to ascertain if any metal
has lost its bond to bearing shell or become detached from surrounding metal .loss
of bond can be ascertained by tapping surface of white metal with edge of large
copper coin .There is distinct change of note between solid bonded metal and
detached metal .If no loose metal is found it is generally safe to continue using
bearing provided cracked areas are localized and do not cover too large an area
.loose metal may extend from few small fragments or chips at the boundary of
crack to quite large detached pieces of thickness upto full thickness of white metal
lining or lesser thickness where crack has extended below surface of metal but not
down to bearing shell .When loose metal is present it must be examined to note
how oil flow to bearing will be affected if detached metal should move .
In engines with non drilled crankshaft crank pin bearing lubrication is effected by
oil flow which passes through cross head bearing .If loose white metal should
move in such engines it may block off oil flow to bottom end bearing resulting in
damage to bearing and most likely to crankpin too .
Generally if detached metal is adjacent to oil holes and movement might block oil
flow loose metal should be removed .If amount of white metal removed is not too
large bearing can continue to be used ,until such time as it can be changed .while it
continues in service clearance of bearing must be carefully checked and kept
under observation .Any large clearance change must be investigated particularly if
change occurs between clearances in forward and aft bearing of crosshead .
Crush height -
Introduction
A firmly tightened bearing has uniform contact with the housing surface, which
fulfills the following functions [1]: - prevents bearing fretting and spinning in the
housing during operation - provides maximum heat transfer through the contacting
surfaces - increases the rigidity of the housing Fig.1 depicts a bearing installed in
the housing. When the bearing is assembled and the two parts of the housing are
tightened, a compression stress in the circumference direction of the bearing
back is formed. The stress causes the bearing to press to the housing surface at a
contact pressure P. The value of the radial contact pressure P determines the ability
of the bearing to transfer the heat produced by friction.
The contact pressure also produces a friction between the bearing back and the
housing surface which contradicts the friction generated by the journal rotating in
the bearing (ML). The torque of the friction force formed between the bearing
back and the housing MH prevents the bearing from shifting in the housing.
High performance bearings working at heavy loads, high rotation speeds and
increased temperatures should be installed with a higher contact pressure. This
provides better heat transfer and secures the bearing more tightly in the housing.
Crush Height In order to achieve a required contact pressure, the outside diameter
of an engine bearing is produced greater than the diameter of its housing. Such
installation technique is called press fit (or interference fit). The difference
between the diameters is called interference. The difference between the
diameters affects the amount of elastic compression of the bearing installed in the
housing, and determines the value of the contact pressure P of the bearing. Since
direct measurement of the bearing circumference is a difficult task, another
parameter characterizing the bearing press fit is commonly measured - crush
height.
Crush height is the difference between the outside circumferential length of a half
bearing (one half shell) and half of the housing circumference [1] measured at a
certain press load.
The tested bearing is installed in the gauge block and pressed with a
predetermined force F. The force is proportional to the cross-section area of the
bearing wall. The optimal value for crush height is dependent on the bearing
diameter, housing material (modulus of elasticity and thermal extension), housing
dimensions and stricture (rigidity), and temperature.