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Bearings class II

Lubrication classification
Hydrodynamic or full fluid film lubrication it is said to exist when moving surfaces
are separated completely by pressure of continuous unbroken film or layer of
lubricant .eg running journal bearing
Boundary lubrication (thin film lubrication ) it exists when operating conditions
are such that it is not possible to establish full fluid film .friction between surfaces
in relative movement is high and some degree of metal to metal contact and wear
occurs .journal bearing at start /stop
Partial full fluid film lubrication this may be transitory or permanent .it may be
regarded as an intermediate condition between boundary and hydrodynamic
lubrication .
A further sub-classification is hydrostatic lubrication which is mainly confined to
slow moving often heavily loaded mechanisms .it is a form of hydrodynamic
lubrication where pressure within oil film causing separation of two surfaces is not
self generated but is supplied from external source by oil under pressure from
pump .
Another form of lubrication is Elasto hydrodynamic lubrication .this applies mainly
to point or line contact which occurs in rolling or sliding mechanism such as roller
bearing and meshing gear teeth .under such conditions hydrodynamic lubrication
does not apply fully but thin film or squeeze film lubrication limits metal to metal
contact .two essential factors are involved- elastic deformation of metals and effect
of high pressure on lubricant .

Fluid Film Lubrication fluid film lubrication is ideal condition for any machinery to
operate .friction is at its minimum ,therefore mechanical efficiency is maximum
and wear of moving parts is eliminated .essential factors affecting establishment of
fluid film for complete separation are :
1.Viscosity of oil higher viscosity more readily fluid film will be formed
2.Speed of rotation or sliding higher speed easier to form fluid film .
3.Bearing load higher the load more difficult to achieve fluid film lubrication
4.Fineness of surface finish
5.In journal bearings ,diameter of journal ,length of bearing and bearing clearances
6. There must be ample continuous supply of oil .
7.There must be convergence between fixed and moving surfaces .

Tilting Pad thrust bearing if a sharp edged block is moved over another metal
surface liberally supplied with oil ,the leading edge scrapes away oil in front of it
.very little oil enters between relative moving surfaces so that boundary lubrication
conditions prevail .if leading edge of block is rounded or chamfered it will ride up
on the oil in front of it thus creating oil wedge between two surfaces .pressure
built up within oil film will support load and full fluid film condition will be
established .
This principle is utilised in Michell and Kingsbury tilting pad thrust bearings .a
number of white metal faced flat thrust pads are provided ,they are pivoted at the
back ,prevented by stops from rotating .they face a machined thrust collar on
engine shaft .leading edge of each pad is chamfered and bearing is maintained full
of oil under pressure .rotating collar forces in oil ,pads tilt to form individual
tapered oil film .
Self generated pressure completely separates the collar and pads .
Oil film thickness varies from 0.013 mm (0.0005 in ) to 0.05 mm (0.02 in ) .
Coefficient of friction varies from 0.001 to 0.005 .
Journal bearings in this shaft or journal is surrounded by plain bearing with
diameter slightly greater than that of journal .mostly bearing lining is tin-based
white metal .under heavy load copper lead ,lead bronze ,aluminium-tin are used
for lining .
Diesel engines bearing load can be 56-105 kg/cm2 for main bearing ,70-140
kg/cm2 for connecting rod or bottom end bearing and 169 kg/cm2 for crosshead
or gudgeon pin bearing .
Bearing clearance must be carefully controlled .if clearance is large ,greater is
eccentricity between journal and bearing therefore greater convergence which is
favourable to establishment of oil wedge .if clearance is too large end leakage of oil
from bearing becomes excessive reducing load carrying pressure in oil film .if
designed clearance is too small it would physically prevent journal floating on oil
film
Bearing length is now receiving more attention .previously it was usual to install as
long bearing as possible to reduce adverse effects of side leakage .but many long
shafts deflect considerably under high loading condition .in such case major part of
load is carried at the ends of bearings which can lead to bearing failure .it is now
costomary to install square bearings ie length /diameter = unity ( L/D =1 ) or even
shorter bearings in some machinery .
For practical engineers relationship between coefficient of friction ,journal speed
,bearing pressure and oil viscosity can be simply explained by the equation :

= f ZN /P where = coefficient of friction


Z = absolute viscosity in centipoise
N = speed in rpm
P = bearing pressure in lb/in2
f = mathemetical function varying with
different bearing design
A typical ZN / P curve for journal bearing against coefficient of friction is shown in
figure .
Starting of journal from rest is shown by left hand side of curve where boundary
lubrication condition exists and friction is very high .as speed increases fluid film
develops and there is rapid fall in friction until it reaches minimum .it then starts to
rise linearly but with much more gradual slope .after minimum the rise is due to
increasing fluid friction within oil film .value of ZN/P should preferably exceed 10
and should not fall below 5 to ensure hydrodynamic lubrication .in the diagram
there is an area of unstable condition referred to partial fluid film lubrication .it is
preferable to operate journal bearings to the right .
Actual coefficient of friction varies from 0.01 to 0.005 .film thickness varies from
0.05 mm to 0.0025 mm .
Hydrostatic lubrication in hydrodynamic lubrication theoretically wear should not
be existing . but machines have to be started and stopped so that boundary
conditions apply for a short period with wear .to reduce static friction and
boundary lubrication some machines such as land turbo alternators are fitted with
jacking systems .a small pump delivers oil at high pressure to bottom of bearing
hydraulically lifting shaft before starting up .as soon as machine is up to speed and
creating its own fluid film in the bearing the jacking pump is shut off .
There are mechanisms where speeds are too slow or loads too high to create fluid
film .hydrostatic lubrication can be used in that place .here metal surfaces are
separated by complete film of oil but this film is not self generated .separating
pressure is supplied from external oil pump .
In marine field the most difficult bearing to lubricate is crosshead bearing .loads
are very high ,motion is non continuous as bearing oscillates over a short arc
.unless pin is exceptionally stiff it deflects under load so that pressure is not
distributed evenly over bearing .some manufacturers fit high pressure oil pumps
On crosshead to supply oil directly to bearing and results have been very good .

Interference fit and stresses


An interference fit between bearing and housing is necessary for a good contact of
bearing back with housing bore .this contact is necessary to prevent motion of
bearing relative to housing .also to obtain good heat transfer from bearing shell to
housing .
The peripheral length of half shells is longer by 2x Sn .this causes during assembly
an extension of bore while at the same time shell is elastically compressed .this
results in tangential compressive stress in bearing shell and radial contact pressure
between housing and shell which engages shell by friction .

Free spread
It is the amount bearing shell is bigger than housing bore when measured over
mating surfaces .it is not to be confused with crush height .free spread serves to
facilitate bearing installation by preventing shell from moving and falling out .
A bearing with no or negative free spread must not be installed because danger of
contact between shaft and running surface near mating faces is high which can
lead to bearing failure .
Bearing clearance and its measurement
Two most feasible methods are :
a) Measuring pin diameter dz by micrometer and bore diameter after bearing
installation by precision bore gauge .averaging of results and computing the
difference will give clearance .
b) Quicker and easier is to check by Plastigage .it is a special thin soft strip which is
inserted in pin and bearing clearance .plastigage strip widens when compressed
during tightening of bolts .final width is an indication of clearance which can be
read from a scale .but this method gives rough value of clearance
Bearings M A N B& W MC Engines
Bearing metals :
Tin based white metal it is an alloy with 88% Sn .rest of alloy composition is
antimony Sb ,copper Cu ,cadmium Cd and small amount of other metals that are
added to improve fineness of grain structure and homogeneity .this is important
for load carrying and sliding properties .lead (Pb ) content is an impurity because
fatigue strength reduces with increasing lead content .Pb should not exceed 0.2 % .

Tin based white metal is used in main bearing ,crank pin bearings ,crosshead
bearings ,guide shoes and thrust bearings due to very good load carrying capacity
and sliding properties .

Tin Aluminium (AlSn 40) it is a composition of aluminium and tin where tin is
trapped in a three dimensional mesh of aluminium .in this 40% is tin .sliding
properties of this are similar to those of tin based white metal buy loading
capacity is higher than tin based white metal .
Here tin gives good embedability and sliding properties and aluminium mesh
functions as an effective load absorber .
Overlayers
It is a galvanic coating of 90% lead (Pb) and 10 % tin (Sn ) .it is applied directly on
white metal sliding surface of bearing .thickness of coating is 0.02 to 0.03 mm .it is
a soft and ductile coating .its main objective is to ensure good embedability and
conformity between bearing sliding surface and pin surface geometry .
Flashlayer Tin (Sn )
A flashlayer is 100 % tin layer with thickness 2-micro meter to 5-micrometer .this
coating is applied all over it primarily prevents corrosion of bearing .it also
functions as effective dry lubricant when new bearings are installed .

Tangential run out it is a transition geometry between circumferential oil supply


groove and bearing sliding surface .this transition geometry prevents oil scraping
effect and reduces resistance to flow of oil towards loaded area of bearing
Bore relief
Bearing sliding surface is machined at mating faces of upper and lower shell to
create bore relief .main objective is to compensate for misalignment which could
result in protruding edge of lower shells mating face to that of upper shell .such
protruding edge can act as oil scraper and can cause oil starvation .

Axial oil grooves and oil wedges


Oil grooves and wedges have following functions
a) Increase oil distribution over load carrying surfaces .tapered areas give
improved oil inlet conditions .
b) Especially in case of cross head bearing to assist formation of hydrodynamic oil
film between load carrying surfaces .
c) To provide oil cooling
to perform these functions oil must flow freely from grooves ,past the oil wedges
And into supporting areas where oil film carries load .
Thick shell bearing
This type of bearing has a steel back with required stiffness :
a) To ensure against distortion of sliding surface geometry
b) To support cast-on white metal in regions where shell lacks support eg in the
area of upper shell mating face .

Thin shell bearing


They have wall thickness between 2 % to 2.5 % of journal diameter .steel back does
not have sufficient stiffness to support cast on white metal .therefore bearing must
be supported rigidly over its full length .this type of bearing is manufactured with
circumferential overlength (crush/nip ) which when shells are mounted and
tightened up ,will produce required radial pressure between shell and bearing
housing .
In service clearance measurements can be regarded :
1.As an indicator to determine condition of bearing without opening up .
2.As a check of correct reassembly of bearing .it is vital that clearance values from
previous check are available for comparision .hence it is important to enter
clearances in engine log book with date and running hours .

Journal /Pin
Surface Roughness : increased surface roughness can be caused by :
a) Abrasive damage due to contamination of system oil .
b) Corrosive damage due to sea water contamination of system oil (acidic ) or
oxidation of journals due to condensate .
c) Spark erosion (only in main bearings ).
With increasing journal/pin roughness a level will be reached where oil film
thickness is no longer sufficient causing metal contact between journal /pin and
bearing sliding surface .this will cause white metal to adhere to journal/pin ,giving
surface a silvery white appearance .when such condition is observed then
journal/pin must be reconditioned by polishing .
Spark Erosion
It is caused by a voltage difference between main bearing and journal surface
.cause of potential is development of galvanic element ships hull ,sea water and
propeller shaft/crank shaft .
Oil film acts as a dielectric .puncture voltage in bearing depends upon thickness of
oil film .(puncture voltage is the voltage at which insulator is punctured electrically
when subjected to gradually increasing voltage ).
With increasing engine rating load on main bearing is increased .this will reduce oil
film thickness and enable discharge to take place at lower voltage level .
Since hydrodynamic oil film thickness varies through out the cycle discharge will
take place roughly at the same instant during each cycle ie when film thickness is
minimum .accordingly roughening will be concentrated in certain areas on journal
surface .
In early stages the roughened areas can resemble pitting erosion but later on as
roughness increases small craters will scrape off and pick up white metal hence
silvery appearance .
To ensure protection against spark erosion potential level must be kept at
maximum 80 mV which is possible with high earthing device .if an earthing device
is installed its effectiveness must be checked regularly .spark erosion is only
observed in main bearings and main bearing journals .
Surface Geometry
Such as roundness defect ,conicity ,barrel form and misalignment may give rise to
operational difficulties .such abnormal cases of journal/pin geometry and
misalignment may occur after a repair .

Undersize Journal/Pin
In case of severe damage it may become necessary to recondition journal/pin by
grinding to undersize .final undersize should be selected as far as possible as a half
or full millimetre .this is advisable to in order to simplify production and availability
of undersize bearings for emergencies .
a) Main and crankpin journals can be ground to 3 mm undersize ; undersize below
this value require special investigation of bearing assembly .
b) In service cross head pins can be :
1. Polished to Dnominal-0.15 mm as minimum diameter
2. Offset to a maximum of 0.3 mm and ground
In both cases since standard bearings are used bearing top clearances will increase
depending upon surface condition of pin to be reconditioned .Offset value used for
grinding must be stamped clearly on pin .
Check without opening up
a)Stop the engine and engage turning gear
b) Just after stopping engine when oil is still circulating check that uniform jets
appear from all oil grooves in crosshead bearing lower shell and guide shoes .oil
flow from main and crank pin bearing must be compared from unit to unit ;there
should be similarity in flow patterns .during this operation turning gear must be
engaged and main starting valve and starting air distributor must be blocked .
c) Stop lube oil circulating pump and turn crank throw for that cylinder unit to BDC
position .
d) Check top clearance with feeler gauge .change in clearance must be negligible
when compared readings from last inspection .
e) Examine sides of bearing shell ,guide shoes and guide strips and check for
squeezed out or loosened metal ;look for white metal pieces in oil pan .
f) In following cases bearings must be dismantled for inspection :
1.Bearing running hot
2. Oil flow and oil jets uneven ,reduced or missing
3.Increase of clearance since previous reading larger than 0.05 mm
4.White metal squeezed out ,dislodged or missing at bearing ,guide shoe or guide
strip ends .

Open up inspection and overhaul


Carefully wipe running surfaces of pin/journal and bearing shell clean rag .use a
powerful lamp for inspection .
Types of damage
The overlayer and white metal can show following types of damage .
a)Tearing of overlayer due to substandard bonding .damage is not confined to
specific area of bearing surface . White metal in damaged area is seen clearly with
sharply defined overlayer border .this defect is regarded as cosmetic defect if it is
confined to smaller areas of bearing surface .
b) Wiping of overlayer here parts of layer being smeared out .wiping of overlayer
can take place when running in new bearing .if wiping is excessive cause must be
found out and rectified .one of major causes of wiping is pin/journal surface
roughness .
c) White metal wiping due to metal contact between sliding surfaces which
causes increased frictional heat resulting in plastic deformation .

Causes for wiping


a) Wiping due to hard contact spots originating from :
1. Defective pin journal bearing or crosshead guide surfaces
2. Scraped bearing or guide shoe surfaces
3. Hard particles trapped between housing bore and back of shell .
4. Fretting on back of shell and in housing bore

b) Pin /journal surface roughness


Provided adequate oil supply has been maintained white metal wiping can always
be caused due to excessive roughness of pin/journal and sometimes due to
alignment problem .
In most of cases increase in roughness will have occurred in service and can be due
to hard particles ingress and/or corrosive attack .therefore careful attention must
always be paid to oil cleanliness .
c) Hard particles ingress may be malfunction of filters and /or certrifuges or
loosened rust and scales from pipings .
d) Corrosive attack may occur if :
1.Oil develops a weak acid or if strong acid anhydrides are added to oil which
In combination with water will develop acid .
2.salt water content in lub oil is higher than 1% .water will attack white metal and
result in formation very hard black tin-oxide which may scratch and roughen pin
surface .
Formation of tin oxide is intensified by rust from bottom tank ,the internal surfaces
which must therefore be kept clean .

Cracks
Crack development is a fatigue phenomenon due to increased dynamic stress level
in local areas of bearing metal .
In case of excessive local heat input fatigue strength of white metal /tin aluminium
will decrease and thermal cracks will develop at normal dynamic stress level .
A small cluster of hairline cracks develops into a network of cracks .at an advanced
stage increased notch effect and effect of hydrodynamic oil pressure will tear white
metal from steel back and produce loose and dislodged metal pieces .
Cause for cracks
a) Insufficient strength of bonding between white metal and steel back (tinning or
casting error )
b) Crack development after a short working period may be due to misalignment
(twist between bearing cap and housing ) or geometric irregularities (step
between contact faces of bearing shell or incorrect oil wedge geometry )
c) High local loading eg during running in load is concentrated on few local high
spots of white metal .
Bearing with cracks can not be repaired .

Repair of oil wedges ,tangential run outs and bore relief


Formation of sharp ridges or incorrect inclination of transition of bearing surface
will disrupt flow of oil to bearing surface causing oil starvation .
Oil transitions are reconditioned by cleaning carefully accumulated metal with
straight edge or another tool .oil wedges should be rebuilt to required inclination
(max 1/100 ) and length
Bearing wear rate
Reduction of shell thickness in loaded area of main ,crankpin and crosshead
bearing over a time interval gives wear rate .average bearing wear rate is 0.01
mm/10000 hrs .as long as bearing wear rate is in this region bearing function can
be regarded normal .

For crosshead bearing wear limit is 50% reduction of oil wedge length .if bearing
surface is in good shape shell can be used again after oil wedges have been
extended to normal length .

Surface roughness
Surface roughness should be within limits
1. For main and crank pin journal
a) new journal 0.8 Ra
b ) roughness approaching 1.6 Ra journal to recondition
2. For crosshead pin
a) new or repolished 0.05 Ra
b) acceptable in service 0.05-0.1 Ra
c) repolishing if over 0.1 Ra
Evaluation of pin/journal roughness can be performed
1. With electronic roughness tester
2. With Ruko tester .here surface of pin /journal is compared with specimens of
Ruko tester .when performing this test pin surface and ruko tester must be
perfectly clean and dry .hold the tester close to surface and compare .if
required run your finger nail over pin/journal surface and Ruko specimen to
compare and determine roughness level .
Ra is arithmetic mean /average of absolute values of profile ht deviations from
mean line recorded within evaluation length .simply speaking Ra is average of set
of individual measurements of surface peaks and valleys .
Repairs of bearings on spot
a) 1.Overlayer wiping in corsshead bearing is not serious ;can be repaired by
correct use of scraper .
2. Hard contact on edges of cross head bearing is normally due to galvanic build up
of overlay .this is sometimes seen when inspecting inspecting newly installed
bearings . It is remedied by relieving these areas with straight edge or other
suitable tool .

b) White metal squeezed out or wiped


1.Wiped metal can accumulate in oil grooves /wedges ,tangential run out or bore
relief where it forms ridges .such bearings can be used again normally provided
ridges are carefully removed with suitable scraping tool and original geometry is
re-established .high spots on bearing surface must be levelled out by light cross
scraping .
2. In cases of wiping where bearing surface geometry is to be re-established it is
important :
i) To assess condition of damaged area and if found necessary to check bearing
surface for hairline crack under magnifying glass and with dye penetrant .
ii) To check roughness of journal/pin surface .

3. In extreme cases of white metal wiping oil wedges in cross head bearing may
disappear .in that case shell should be replaced .

Cracked bearing metal surface can not be repaired ;bearing must be replaced .

Repairs of journal /pin


a) Cross head pins
Pin surface roughness should be less than 0.1 Ra .if Ra value is higher than 0.1
micro mtr pin can be repolished on the spot .if pin is scratched then situation and
extent of scratched area must be evaluated .if there are deep scratches then these
must be levelled out carefully with emery paper before polishing is started .surface
roughness after polishing should be 0.05 Ra .
Following methods are recommended for repolishing on the spot

1. Polishing with microfinishing film


Polishing process is carried out with microfinishing film eg 3M aluminium oxide
(30 micron and 15 micron ) which is quick and easy method .best method would be
to send ashore .
Microfinishing film can be slung around the pin and drawn to and fro by hand ;at
the same time moved along the length of pin or it is drawn with the help of hand
drilling machine .in this case ends of microfilm are connected together with strong
adhesive tape .
( microfinishing film rolls are micron graded aluminium oxide resin bonded to a
polyester film backing .it is used for finishing process and polishing engine
components )
2. Braided hemp rope method
This method is executed with braided hemp rope and jewellers rouge .
A mixture of polishing wax and gas oil is to be applied to rope at regular intervals
.during polishing rope must move slowly from one end of pin to other .polishing is
continued until roughness measurement proves that surface is adequately smooth
.this is very time consuming operation and depending upon surface roughness
three to six hours may be needed to complete .

b) Journals (main and crankpin )


1. Methods for polishing crosshead pin can also be used here .polishing with
micro finishing film will be most suitable .30 micron film is recommended .
2. Local damage to journal can also be repaired .area is to be ground carefully and
transitions to journal sliding surfaces to be rounded carefully and polished .

Cross head bearing function


because of oscillating movement and low sliding speed of cross head bearing
hydrodynamic oil film is generated through special oil wedges on either side of
axial oil supply grooves situated in loaded area of bearing .
Oil film generated in this manner can be thin .this makes demand for pin surface
roughness and oil wedge geometry important parameters for function of bearing
.further requirement is effective cooling which is ensured by transverse oil
grooves. pin surface is superfinished .lower shell is provided with special surface
geometry (embeded arc ) which extends over 120 degree arc and ensures uniform
load distribution on bearing surface in contact with pin .lower shell is coated with
overlayer which enables pin sliding geometry to conform with bearing surface .

Main bearing
It can be thick shell type or thin shell type .

Thick shell bearing assy


Tensioning force of thick shell bearing is transferred from bearing cap to upper
shell and via mating faces to lower shell .
Bearing bore is equipped with following geometry :
a) Central oil supply groove and oil inlet in upper shell which ends in tangential
run out in both sides of lower shell .
b) Bearing bore is furnished with bore relief at mating faces of upper and lower
shell .

Thin shell bearing


This is a rigid assembly .bearing cap( position 1 ) which has inclined vertical and
horizontal mating face is wedged into similar female geometry in bed plate
(position 2) which when assembly is pretensioned will ensure a secure locking of
cap in bedplate .
Lower shell is positioned by means of screws (pos 3) during mounting of lower
shell it is important to check that screws are fully tightened to bedplate .this is to
prevent damage to screws and shell during tightening of bearing cap
Crankpin bearing assembly
This assembly is mounted with thin shell .it has two or four tensioning studs
depending on engine type .crankpin bearing assy with four studs must be
tensioned in parallel eg first two forward studs and then two aftmost studs
.tensioning may be done in two or three stages to avoid a twist (angular
displacement ) of bearing cap to mating face on connecting rod .
Oil supply groove transition to bearing sliding surface is similar to main bearing
geometry .
Guide shoes and strips
Guide shoes which are mounted on fore and aft ends of crosshead pin slide
between guides and transform movement of piston /piston rod via connecting rod
into rotational movement crankshaft .
Guide shoe is positioned relatively to crosshead pin with positioning pin screwed
into guide shoe .end of positioning pin protrudes into a hole in crosshead pin and
restricts rotational movement of crosshead pin when engine is turned with piston
rod disconnected .
Guide strips are bolted on to inner side of guide shoes and ensure correct position
of piston rod in fore and aft direction .this alignment and clearance between guide
strips and guide is made shims between list and guide shoe .
Sliding surfaces of guide shoes and guide strips are provided with cast on white
metal and furnished with transverse oil supply grooves and wedges .
Thrust bearing assembly (MAN B&W M C)
Thrust bearing is integrated into chain drive .it is a tilting pad bearing of Michell
type .there are eight pads placed on each of forward and aft side of thrust collar
They are held in place circumferentially by stops .segments can be compared to
sliding blocks and are pivoted in such a manner that they can individually take up
angle of approach necessary for hydrodynamic lubricating wedge .lubricating oil is
sprayed directly on to forward and aft side of collar by means of nozzles positioned
in place between pads .nozzles are mounted on semi-circular delivery pipe .
Camshaft bearing assembly
These bearing assemblies are positioned between exhaust and fuel cams of
individual cylinder units .bearing assy is underslung type ie shaft rests in rigid
bearing caps that are bolted from below to horizontal face in cam housing .correct
position of caps is ensured by dowel pins .
Bearing used are thin shell type without overlayer .shell configuration can be :
a) Two shell assy (upper and lower shell )
b) One shell assy (lower shell only )
In case b ) mating faces of lower shell rest against horizontal partition face in cam
housing .wall thickness at mating faces of shell is reduced to ensure inner surface
of shell is flush with bore in cam housing .
Transition to bearing sliding surface is wedge shaped to ensure unrestricted oil
supply to bearing sliding surface .
Load in camshaft bearing is low and bearings function trouble free provided
camshaft lub oil system is well maintained .
Bearing shell measurement
Place the shell freely
a) Measure crown thickness with ball micrometer gauge in forward and aft side of
bearing shell .measure in middle of shell .it should be 15 mm from forward and
aft side .
b) Measure free spread and compare
Too large free spread may take installation and extraction difficult ;may cause
damage to locking screws .
Too small or negative spread could cause direct contact with pin journal resulting in
oil starvation and finally damage to white metal surface .
Shell should be stored resting on one side ;keep in original packing .
Q. Regarding main propulsion engine explain indications and possible effects which
might be expected from :
a) Insufficient bearing clearance
b) Excessive bearing clearance
c) State the recommended bearing clearances for bottom end ,top end and main
bearing of your ship s engine .
a)Insufficient bearing clearance
A bearing clearance is essential for lube oil to reach loaded areas of bearing by
hydrodynamic pumping action of rotating shaft or journal .this helps to maintain an
oil film between running surfaces in the bearing thereby avoiding metal to metal
contact and wear .an important role of oil in a pressure lubrication system is to
remove heat generated by internal friction between oil layers .with insufficient
bearing clearance oil flow through bearing will reduce and less heat will be
dissipated .this can lead to overheating of bearing which may be indicated by a rise
in temperature of return oil .
With overheating oil viscosity may be reduced leading to a reduction in oil film
thickness separating moving parts .there may be metal to metal contact ,increased
friction and wiping of white metal bearing and consequent damage .overheated
bearing can become a hot spot giving rise to mist formation with possible crank
case explosion .
b) Excessive bearing clearance
It may be indicated by a fall in bearing oil pressure and in severe case by knocking
of bearing .a large clearance in one bearing may result in greater outflow through
bearing and this can lead to oil starvation in other bearings downstream of oil
supply line .
Excessive clearance may result in hammering and damage to bearing and shaft or
journal .increased main bearing clearance may result in lowering of respective
journal ,misalignment and vibrations and bending stresses in crankshaft .Modern
engines are fitted with thin bearing shell where clearance can not be adjusted .if
clearance more than max allowable limit that bearing must be replaced .
Q.During a routine crankcase inspection main engine top end bearing is found to
be wiped and subsequent inspection shows that pin is badly scored : a) explain
action to be taken to enable engine to be safely operated so that vessel may reach
a port where effective repair facilities are available .b) state with reasons the
factors which influence speed at which engine may be operated safely .

a) Action to be taken to safely operate the engine


If crosshead pin is badly scored and bearing wiped out ,machining crosshead and
fitting new set of undersize bearing or replacement of these parts would be only
satisfactory and permanent repair .it is however not normal for ship to have such a
machining capability ,nor to carry a spare set of undersize bearings .if repairs are
not possible and ship must sail then subject to agreement of classification society
and concerned statutory authority ,it will be possible to sail with connecting rod
and its bearing removed .crosshead with guide shoes ,piston rod and piston must
be safely secured inside crankcase for this purpose .
Class surveyor will most certainly impose a condition of class for a specified and
limited period to enable ship to proceed to a port or place where permanent
repairs may be carried out .
Cylinder cover with exhaust valve may remain in place .
Following measures are to be additionally taken .
. Fuel pump with roller guide to be lifted off the cam and secured ;fuel shut off
.exhaust valve actuator with roller guide lifted off the cam and secured ,oil to
actuator blanked off
.exhaust valve lifted and closed using special lifting tool ;spring air should remain
on to keep valve closed .
.air starting valve main and pilot air supply line blanked
.oil inlet to crosshead blanked
.cylinder lubricator set to zero delivery
.engine to be operated at safe speed .
b) Factors which influence safe operating speed
Engine builders make careful and elaborate calculations of dynamic forces and
moments to ensure that any out of balance forces and couples are kept within
acceptable limits .calculations are also made and measures taken if necessary to
ensure that there are no undue vibrations with or without restrictions of barred
speed ranges .when running gear of unit is removed engine is no longer balanced
and vibration characterstics may alter .it is advisable to contact engine builder and
obtain their advice as to safe speed at which engine may run .
Following recommendations are based on MAN B &W instructions on operation of
crosshead type engine with running gear of a unit removed .:

.As air supply is no longer optimal thermal load will be higher


At lower load range exhaust temperature s can sometimes be relatively higher ;it
may be necessary to avoid operating in this load range .
Governor hunting may occur ;suitable adjustments depending on governor type
may be necessary .
Pressure pulsation may occur in scavenge and exhaust receiver which can give
reduced air supply to any one of cylinders causing respective exhaust temperatures
to increase .fuel pump index for these cylinders must be therefore reduced to keep
exhaust temperatures within recommended values .
Since turbochargers will be working outside their normal range surging may occur
.this can generally be remedied by blowing off from scavenge air receiver
.increased temperature level caused by this must be compensated for by a
reduction in engine revolution until exhaust temperatures are in accordance with
recommended values .
With one or more cylinders out of operation torsional vibrations as well as other
mechanical vibrations may occur at certain speeds of engine .standard torsional
vibration calculations cover following conditions
-normal running
-misfiring of one cylinder
Calculations do not deal with situation where reciprocating masses are removed
from engine .in such cases engine maker has to be contacted .
Should unusual noise or extreme vibrations occur at chosen speed this speed must
be further reduced .
Because engine is no longer balanced ,increased stresses occur in crankshaft ,chain
and camshaft .however if abnormal vibrations do not occur engine can usually be
run for a short period (for instance some days ) without suffering damage .
If engine is to be run for prolonged period with cylinders out of operation engine
builder should always be contacted in order to obtain advice concerning possible
recommended barred speed range .
If engine does not run on starting air in a certain crankshaft position it must
immediately be started for short period in opposite direction after which reversal is
to be made to required direction of rotation
Should this not give desired result it will be necessary to turn engine to better
starting position by means of turning gear .remember to cut off starting air before
turning and open indicator cock s.
After starting engine speed should be increased gradually and in steps .after
running about 30 minutes engine should be stopped ,allowed to cool down and
crankcase opened to inspect all parts particularly in way of securing arrangement
For crosshead and piston and blanking arrangements . If all found in order same
procedure should be repeated after one hour of running .
Finally chief engineer is in best position to assess the situation and decide at what
speed engine should be run .in case of excessive noise ,vibrations or signs of other
abnormalities speed should be adjusted to that at which engine appears to work
smoothly and safe .
Q. What examination would you carry out on main bearing and crankshaft before
,during and after removal of bearings from engine .?
Bearing nuts ,oil pipes ,locking devices and split pins must be examined to see that
Nothing is abnormal prior to dismantling .if it possible to measure bearing
clearance with feeler gauge before dismantling upper half of bearing ,clearance
should be measured and recorded .after removal of upper half of main bearing
wear down of lower half should be taken with bridge gauge and feeler gauge and
recorded .
Lower half of main bearing is then removed and brought out of crankcase .white
metal of bearing should be examined for cracks ,which may be developing in
wearing surface of bearing and if present white metals around cracks should be
lightly tapped with ball pein of a small hammer or with large copper coin to check
that white metal is bonding with shell of bearing .remaining parts of bearing
should also be checked to establish that bond remains solid .
Attention must be given to any oil grooves which may be cut in main bearings ..if
sides of grooves are sharp they must be lightly scraped with scraper to establish oil
lead in .if bearing has slightly wiped at any time and not been previously noticed
any debris should be chipped out of oil groove and sides of groove scrapped
.generally lower half of bearing requires much more careful examination than
upper half .outer surface of bearing shell should also be examined for any fretting
which may have taken place if bearing was left or worked slack .
On crankshaft working surfaces of journal are examined for signs of corrosion or
pitting caused by water or acid contamination of lube oil .area around oil holes is a
critical part and must also be carefully examined for cracks which usually emanate
at about 45 degree to axis of crankshaft .in some cases may be upto four or more
in number forming radial lines from oil hole . Surfaces of crank webs are also
examined for any signs of crack ,particularly in higher stressed regions midway
between pin and journal .with built up crankshaft shrink fit reference marks
should also be checked .
For medium speed engines main bearings oil lead in pockets or chambers at butts
of bearing should have their edges examined .if necessary they should be eased
lightly on edges .oil holes should be examined for cracks fillets between journal
and web area require careful examination particularly in the arc of fillet between
position corresponding to 10 o clock and 2 o clock when piston is on top dead
centre
Location where fatigue failure may commence is shown in fig .any crack which may
be present will be more difficult to find in crankshafts having re-entrant or negative
fillet .this type of fillet is more common today .it is necessary to use mirror and
flash light to view surface of fillet .cracks usually start at the bottom of re entrant
fillets .with normal fillets any crack will normally start at the edge of fillet run out
cracks may also start at fillets of oil hole .this form of crack usually runs at 45
degree to shaft axis .once initiated any fatigue crack will grow until complete
fracture occurs .before replacing lower half of bearing it is useful to take a bridge
gauge reading to establish natural sag of crankshaft with bearing removed if figure
is not known or recorded .
Describe examination carried out before dismantling main bearings .how are main
bearings removed from bearing pocket .?

Before dismantling main bearings examination must be made to check that marks
locating the position of keep and bearing shell are correct .the marks usually cut in
with letter and figure type signify bearing number and the way it is located .it may
be that spare main bearing has been fitted in an engine in which case direction in
which bearing is located may not be indicated and some location identifying mark
should then be made with a letter or figure stamp .
Various means are adopted to facilitate removal of lower half of bearing .a
common method is to fit a clamp on crank web adjacent to bearing which has to
be removed .engine is then turned slowly with turning gear and bearing is pushed
round out of its pocket by a projection on the clamp .when bearing has been
turned for a half revolution it will be sitting on top of the journal free of the pocket
.it is then lifted off the journal and swung clear of crank webs with a set of chain
blocks rigged above the bearing and another set rigged near crankcase door
If bearing bore has been machined slightly eccentric to outer shell of bearing
engine must be turned in one direction to remove bearing and in opposite
direction to replace it .
Some very large engines the support for bearing in the pocket of bedplate is made
with a small hollow area so that a pocket is formed .this pocket is then filled with
oil and oil is put under pressure with a hand pressure pump .oil under pressure lifts
the bearing in the pocket and reduces turning effort required to turn bearing out of
pocket .
In other engines it is necessary to place hydraulic jacks under the webs on each
side of bearing to be removed .wood blocks are placed below the jacks to
distribute load evenly over the bottom of crank pit and jacks are pumped up so
that weight of crankshaft is transferred from bearing to jacks .bearing is then free
in the pocket .an eye bolt is fitted into the side of bearing and bearing is pulled
round in its pocket with a chain block .when bearing is half out of its pocket eye
bolt is transferred to another position so that bearing can be completely turned
out of its pocket .
What examination must be carried out when a crankpin bearing of large slow
speed engine is opened up for survey .?
When bearing has been exposed the white metal is examined for cracks ,signs of
wiping and condition of oil grooves which should be dealt with as mentioned
above .foot of connecting rod must be checked for cracks at the sides of bolt hole
and underside of foot must also be examined for cracks running across under the
line of run out of fillet .contact surface between connecting rod and top flat
surface of crankpin bearing is also checked for fretting .
Threads of bolts must be examined for deformation and stretching ;bolts should
also be hung up and sounded with a light hammer for detecting cracks .the fillets in
the reduced sections of bolt must be examined for start of cracks which could lead
to eventual bolt fracture .if any bolts are suspect crack detection test should be
applied and if any cracks are confirmed new bolts must be fitted .crankpin should
be examined for cracks particularly in the region of oil hole in crankpin .condition
of working surface of pin and reference marks between crankpin and crank web
are important points to note .
It is a good practice to place a straight edge on top of crankpin when on top centre
and at 90 deg ,180 deg and 270 deg from this position .the profile of wearing
surface of pin can then be checked and some indication will be given if high spots
or areas are being left at centre of crankpin in way of circumferential groove of
bearing and at the sides of crankpin .although no action may be taken to remove
high areas on unworn parts of crankpin it is to be aware of their presence in case
difficulties arising in alignment of running gear or operation of running gear
bearing .
If crosshead and crankpin bolts are insufficiently tightened what effect does it have
on bolt ?.
Insufficient tightening can have serious consequences even if bearing continues to
operate without becoming slack .When a bearing bolt is tightened it is subjected to
tensile stress .
During operation changing inertia load on bearing keeps causes variation in bolt
loading which adds to loading from tightening bolt nuts .When a bolt is
insufficiently tightened stress range in bolt is greater in service even though
maximum stress may be less .since fatigue is function of stress range rather than
maximum stress an insufficiently tightened bolt is more liable to fatigue failure
than one which is correctly tightened .
When white metal lined crosshead bearings fail in service what are usual types of
failure ?
Various types of failure occur in cross head bearing linings .Some failures if found
early can be rectified so that bearing can continue in service satisfactorily .In other
forms of failure lining must be condemned and bearing remetalled . Failure of
white metal in less severe forms progresses so that bearing must be remetalled
eventually .
Forms of failure are :
1.Cracking of white metal
2.Fatigue failure of white metal
3.Squeezing of white metal so that oil grooves are partially blocked or obliterated
;oil holes may be partially blocked or wholly blocked in extreme cases .
4.Failure by overheating when bearing surface of white metal becomes plastic or
even melts .
5.Corrosion
Failure of white metal by cracking or fatigue does not normally have any indication
under normal operation .if it is present it is usually found at the time lower half of
bearing is exposed for examination .Failure by squeezing or overheating may
become apparent during engine operation .it is often noticed when checking
bearing clearance or during crankcase examination .Failure by corrosion is usually
found when examination is carried out on the bearing s ,corrosion of white metal
usually accompanied by corrosion of cross head pin .Form of corrosion will depend
on nature of contamination of lub oil .

What are usual causes of crosshead bearing failure ?


Bearing failure may result from any one or combination of following cases
1.Misalignment of engine running gear
2.Deterioration of surface finish of crosshead pins
3.Quality of white metal
4.Insufficient supply of lubricant
5.Impure lubricant or water contamination
6.Excessive firing pressure

Q .How can damage occur to crosshead bearings in slow speed propulsion engine
when engine is operating under manoeuvring conditoins ?

Many engines that operate on medium and high viscosity fuel at sea use diesel fuel
to manoeuvre main engines when proceeding in coastal waters or in and out of
port .Medium and high viscosity fuels require much earlier injection than diesel
fuel to obtain good combustion .when an engine which has been timed for
cheaper grade slower burning fuel uses diesel oil which is faster burning then rate
of pressure increases and maximum combustion pressure may exceed that for
which engine was designed .Normally lower operating power of engine caters for
this pressure rise and keeps maximum pressure within safe bounds .IT is a good
practice to take maximum cylinder pressure whenever a new supply of diesel oil
Is being used for first time under manoeuvring conditions .
When ships with bridge control are being controlled from navigating bridge master
must be made aware of maximum speed at which engine can be safely operated
on diesel fuel so that engine speed is kept within safe limit .excessive combustion
pressure will be shown by cylinder relief valve lifting .But operating just below
relief valve lifting pressure over extended period can easily cause damage to
bearings and other engine parts .if there were any malfunction of relief valves
then high combustion pressure may go unnoticed until bearing damage was found
.
If on opening up a crosshead bearing it was found that white metal was cracked
,how would you judge whether bearing was fit for further service .?

First the white metal in cracked area must be examined to ascertain if any metal
has lost its bond to bearing shell or become detached from surrounding metal .loss
of bond can be ascertained by tapping surface of white metal with edge of large
copper coin .There is distinct change of note between solid bonded metal and
detached metal .If no loose metal is found it is generally safe to continue using
bearing provided cracked areas are localized and do not cover too large an area
.loose metal may extend from few small fragments or chips at the boundary of
crack to quite large detached pieces of thickness upto full thickness of white metal
lining or lesser thickness where crack has extended below surface of metal but not
down to bearing shell .When loose metal is present it must be examined to note
how oil flow to bearing will be affected if detached metal should move .
In engines with non drilled crankshaft crank pin bearing lubrication is effected by
oil flow which passes through cross head bearing .If loose white metal should
move in such engines it may block off oil flow to bottom end bearing resulting in
damage to bearing and most likely to crankpin too .
Generally if detached metal is adjacent to oil holes and movement might block oil
flow loose metal should be removed .If amount of white metal removed is not too
large bearing can continue to be used ,until such time as it can be changed .while it
continues in service clearance of bearing must be carefully checked and kept
under observation .Any large clearance change must be investigated particularly if
change occurs between clearances in forward and aft bearing of crosshead .
Crush height -
Introduction
A firmly tightened bearing has uniform contact with the housing surface, which
fulfills the following functions [1]: - prevents bearing fretting and spinning in the
housing during operation - provides maximum heat transfer through the contacting
surfaces - increases the rigidity of the housing Fig.1 depicts a bearing installed in
the housing. When the bearing is assembled and the two parts of the housing are
tightened, a compression stress in the circumference direction of the bearing
back is formed. The stress causes the bearing to press to the housing surface at a
contact pressure P. The value of the radial contact pressure P determines the ability
of the bearing to transfer the heat produced by friction.
The contact pressure also produces a friction between the bearing back and the
housing surface which contradicts the friction generated by the journal rotating in
the bearing (ML). The torque of the friction force formed between the bearing
back and the housing MH prevents the bearing from shifting in the housing.
High performance bearings working at heavy loads, high rotation speeds and
increased temperatures should be installed with a higher contact pressure. This
provides better heat transfer and secures the bearing more tightly in the housing.
Crush Height In order to achieve a required contact pressure, the outside diameter
of an engine bearing is produced greater than the diameter of its housing. Such
installation technique is called press fit (or interference fit). The difference
between the diameters is called interference. The difference between the
diameters affects the amount of elastic compression of the bearing installed in the
housing, and determines the value of the contact pressure P of the bearing. Since
direct measurement of the bearing circumference is a difficult task, another
parameter characterizing the bearing press fit is commonly measured - crush
height.
Crush height is the difference between the outside circumferential length of a half
bearing (one half shell) and half of the housing circumference [1] measured at a
certain press load.
The tested bearing is installed in the gauge block and pressed with a
predetermined force F. The force is proportional to the cross-section area of the
bearing wall. The optimal value for crush height is dependent on the bearing
diameter, housing material (modulus of elasticity and thermal extension), housing
dimensions and stricture (rigidity), and temperature.

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