Learning Objectives

Scale
Attitude
Measurement
Learning Objectives
 Learning Objectives
Learning Objectives

1. To understand the concept of measurement.

2. To understand the four levels of scales and

their typical usage.

3. To explore the concepts of reliability and

validity.

4. To become familiar with the concept of

scaling.

5. To learn about the various types of attitude

scales.
 Learning Objectives

6. To examine some basic considerations in

selecting a type of scale.
7. To realize the importance of attitude
measurement scales in management
decision making.
Learning Objectives
Learning Objectives
 Learning Objectives
Meaning of Attitude To understand the concept of
.

• Attitude :
Attitude means “settled behaviour indicating opinion”.
Attitude is a subjective and personal matter. Opinion
of a person is a verbal expression of attitude and also
readiness to response. Many researchers admit that
attitude involves some acceptance or rejection of an
issue or subject matter under study. When an
individual response to a social or business issues, it
indicates an attempt to provide evaluation, which may
be in favour or against.
 Learning Objectives
Definition of Attitude To understand the concept of
measurement.

• A pre-disposition to respond to an idea or

object. -By Gene F. Summers

• In marketing it refers to the consumers pre-

disposition about the product or if it is
favorable, then the consumers is likely to
purchase a product or service.
 Learning Objectives
Three elements of To understand the concept of
Attitude measurement.

• Cognition
• Emotional feelings
• Action tendency

These three elements combine together to form

an image of the product or service in the mind
of the consumer.
 Learning Objectives
Meaning of measurement To understand the concept of
measurement.

• Measurement is “the assignment of numbers to

characteristics of objects , persons, states or events,
according to rules”. What is measured is not the
object, person, state or event but some characteristics
of it. People are not measured, only height, weight,
age etc. are measured. The term number given in the
definition are used as symbols to represent certain
characteristics of the object and it does not mean
addition, subtraction, multiplication or division.
 Learning Objectives
Meaning of measurement To understand the concept of
measurement.

• Measurement is a creation of rules. These rules

specify how the numbers are to be assigned to
the characteristics to be measured.

• Those who are not familiar with the rules will

not understand what has been measured.

• Market share can be based on units sold or

sales turnover in Rupees or any other rules.
 Learning Objectives
Process of Measurement To understand the concept of
measurement.

1. Determine the constructs of interest

2. Establish the constructs area
3. Setting operational definition
4. Collect data to test measures
5. Retain relevant data
6. Establish validity of data
7. Prepare research report
 Learning Objectives
Attitude measurement To understand the concept of
measurement.

• Attitude measurement is also commonly referred to

as scaling.
• The measurement techniques can be divided into:
1. Non-disguised, Non-Structured techniques
2. Non-disguised, Structured techniques
3. Disguised, Non-Structured techniques
4. Disguised, Structured techniques
 Learning Objectives

Attitude
Measurement

Non-disguised, Non-disguised, Disguised, Disguised,

Non-Structured Structured Non-Structured Structured
techniques techniques techniques techniques
 Learning Objectives
Non-disguised, Non-
Structured techniques

• The purpose of the interview is not a secret and that there is no

fixed structure for conducting the interview.

Qualitative research
The most common method of obtaining information about the
behavior, attitudes and other characteristics of people is to ask
them. It is not always possible or desirable to use direct
questioning to obtain information. People may be either
unwilling or unable to give answers to questions they consider to
be an invasion of their privacy.

Marketing researchers frequently use depth interviews, focused group

interviews, mini group interviews and projective techniques
when direct questioning is impractical, more costly or less
accurate. These refers to qualitative research.
 Learning Objectives
Non-disguised, Non-
Structured techniques

Depth interviews
• Individual depth interviews typically require 30-40 mins.
The interviewer does not have a specific set of pre-specified
questions that must be asked according to the order imposed
by a questionnaire.
• There is a freedom to create questions and try to develop the
best set in any way practical.
• The interviewer must follow one rule; one must not
consciously try to affect the content of the answers given by
the respondents and they must feel free to reply to the
various questions, probes and other, ways of encouraging
responses in the manner deemed most appropriate.
 Learning Objectives
Non-disguised, Non-
Structured techniques

• Three questioning techniques used in individual depth interviews(IDI):

 Laddering:
It involves having respondents identify attributes that distinguish brands by
asking questions.

 Hidden-issues questioning:
It focuses on individual respondents feelings about sensitive issues. Analysis
on focus on common underlying themes across respondents. These themes
can be used to guide advertising development.

 Symbolic questioning:
It requires respondents to describe the opposites of the product/activity of
interest or a specific attribute of the product/activity
 Learning Objectives
Non-disguised, Non-
Structured techniques

IDI have been found to generate more and higher quality ideas as
per respondents basis than either focus or mini groups. They
are particularly appropriate when:
 Detailed questions of an individual behavior, attitude or needs
is required.
 The subject matter under discussion is likely to be of a highly
confidential nature.
 The subject matter is of an emotionally charged or
embarrassing nature.
 Socially acceptable norms exists.
 Where highly detailed understanding of complicated behavior
or decision making pattern.
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Focus group discussion

• The standard focus group discussion involves 6 to 10

respondents and information is collected collectively from the
whole group

• Here the assumptions is that people talk more freely/openly

when in groups.

• Focused interview is more precise, clear-cut and to the point.

• The group leader (moderator) has to use his skills etc. and see
that the discussion does not move away from the main
problem and that necessary information is available from the
group.
 Learning Objectives
Advantages of focused group
discussion

• Saving of time & money.

• Provides detailed & accurate information.
• Each member is given an opportunity to
participate in the discussion.
• New ideas are generated.
• Participants are free to express their views
without any fear/pressure.
 Learning Objectives
Dis-advantages of focus
group discussion

• Members may express views on irrelevant

matters.
• There may be one-sided discussion in the
group.
• The benefit of this technique will be available
only if the group leader is matured,
experienced and an effective communicator.
 Learning Objectives
Mini
Group

• Mini group consists of a moderator & 4 to 5

respondents rather than 8 to 12 used in focus
group.
• It is used when the issue being investigated
requires more extensive probing than is
possible in a larger group.
• How ever they do allow the researcher to
obtain substantially depth of response on the
topics that are covered.
 Learning Objectives
Disguised,
Non-structured
Techniques

I. Projective technique
WORD ASSOCIATION:-
It requires the subject to respond to the presentation of a
stimulus with the first things that comes to mind.
The most common approach to analyzing the resulting
data is to analyze the frequency with a particular
word or category of words given in the response to
the word of interest to the researcher.
 Learning Objectives
Disguised,
Non-structured
Techniques

II. Completion techniques:

• There Are two types of completion
techniques:
• Sentence completion
• Story completion
 Learning Objectives
Disguised,
Non-structured
Techniques

III. Construction techniques:

• This technique requires the respondent to produce
or construct something, generally a story dialogue
or description. They are five types of construction
techniques:
1) Cartoon technique
2) Third person technique
3) Thematic appreciation
4) Fantasy scenario
5) Personification
 Learning Objectives
Disguised,
Non-structured
Techniques

IV. Expressive technique

• Role playing is the only expressive
technique utilized to an extent by marketing
researcher.
• Role playing customer can be asked to try
to sell a given product to a number of
different consumers who raise varied
objection.
 Learning Objectives
Disguised,
Structured
Techniques

• The basic premise is that the respondents will

reveal their attitudes by the extent to which
their answers to the objective questions vary
from the correct answer.
• Respondents are given questions that they are
unable to answer correctly.
• Individuals tend to gather information that
supports their attitude.
 Learning Objectives
Non Disquised,
structured techniques

• The non-structured techniques for attitude

studies are primarily of value in exploratory
studies.
• The researcher is looking for the salient
attributes of given products and the important
factors surrounding purchase decisions as seen
by the consumer.
• It provides a more objective measurement
system, one that is more compatible to a scale.
 Learning Objectives

Types of scale

Nominal
scale

Ratio Types of Ordinal

scale scales scale

Interval
scale
 Learning Objectives
The Concept of Measurement To understand the four levels of
and Measurement Scales scales and their typical usage.

•NOMINAL SCALE:-

•Under nominal; scale there is no numerical sanctity.

•Numbers are used only as labels e.g. if we want to

categorize male and female respondents, nominal scale can
be used as 1 for male and 2 for females

•It is important that variables needing statistical computations

like mean and standard deviation cannot be done through
nominal scale.
 Learning Objectives
The Concept of Measurement To understand the four levels of
and Measurement Scales scales and their typical usage.

ORDINAL SCALE:

It is the simplest and the most widely used attitude

measuring scale in marketing research.

They serve to rank respondents according to some

characteristics viz. age of students, favorability of brand.

A set of data is said to be ordinal if the values/ observations

belonging to it can be ranked( put in order) to have a rating
attached.

We can count and order but not measure ordinal data.

 Learning Objectives

Executives A B C D E

Income per 13,00,00 27,00,0 10,00,00 19,00,0 18,00,00

0 00 0 00 0
Annum(rs)
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Executives Order of executives on the basis of annual

income
A B
B D
C E
D A
E C
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Interval scale
• This scale is also known as ratio-scaled data.
• The attitude of respondents is measured on a
scale of 1 to 5 or 1 to 7.
• E.g. when a consumer is asked about brand
preference on a scale of 1 to 7, it is called
interval scale. It is possible to compute
average rating given by all the respondents.
 Learning Objectives

• They separate individuals or items by rank order but

measure the distance between rank position in equal
units.
• Such a scale permits the researcher to say that the
position 4 is above position 3 on the scale, and also
the distance from position 5 to 4 is same as from 4 to
3.
• An interval scale is a scale of measurement where the
distance between any two adjacent units of
measurement( or interval) is the same but the zero
point is arbitrary.
 Learning Objectives

Ratio scale
• Ratio scale enjoys the advantage of all the
above three scales mentioned earlier.
• It also possess the concept of absolute zero or
origin
• This scale is superior to all other methods.
 Learning Objectives
TYPES OF ATTITUDE

Types of
Types of attitude
attitude scales
scales

The
The Multi-
constant Thurstone Likert
Semantic
Semantic Multi-
constant Thurstone Likert differential dimential
sum
sum scale
scale scale differential dimential
scale scale
scale scale
scale
scale scale
 Learning Objectives
The Constant Sum
Scale
• The constant sum scale requires the respondent to
divide a constant sum, generally 10 or 100, among
two or more objects or attributes in order to reflect
the respondent’s relative preference for each objects,
the importance of the attribute or the degree to which
an object contains each attribute.
• This scale can be used in 2 cases:-
• For two objects at a time (paired comparison)
• More than two objects at a time (quadric comparison)
 Learning Objectives

The Constant Sum

Scale

Price 1

Economy 2

Dependability 3

Safety 4

Comfort 5

Style 6
 Learning Objectives

Price ___________
Economy ___________
Dependability ___________
Safety ___________
Comfort ___________
Style ___________
Total 100
 Learning Objectives

• The disadvantage could be that occasionally

individuals may misassign points such that the
total is more than or less than 100. This can be
adjusted by dividing each point allocation by
the actual total and multiplying it by 100.
 Learning Objectives

Thurstone scale
• Thurstone scales typically present the reader with
a number of statements to which they have to
respond, usually by ticking a "true" or "false"
box, or "agree"," disagree", i.e. a choice of two
possible responses.
• It means the “measurement of attitude” have
advocated a technique in attitude measurement.
They emphasized collection of large number of
statements relating to the subject matter of
inquiry.
 Learning Objectives
Thurstone scale

• For e.g.
• 1) The health services provided at this
hospital are of the highest standard......
Agree( ) Disagree( )

• 2) People should avoid smoking if they want

to remain healthy.......
Agree ( ) Disagree ( )
 Learning Objectives

Thurstone's scaling method was constructed in

these steps:
• 1. Specification of the attitude variable to be
measured.
• 2. Collection of a wide variety of opinions relating to
the specified attitude variable.
• 3. Editing this material for a list of about one hundred
brief statements of opinion.
• 4. Sorting the statements into an imaginary scale
representing the attitude variable. This should be
done by about three hundred readers.
 Learning Objectives

• 5. Calculation of the scale value of each

statement.
• 6. Elimination of some statements by the
criteria of ambiguity.
• 7. Elimination of some statements by the
criteria of irrelevance.
• 8. Selection of a shorter list of about 20
statements evenly graduated along the scale
 Learning Objectives

• Thurstone have given five criteria to select the statement:-

1. The statement should be brief.

2. Feasibility to accept or reject the statement in keeping with

the attitude of the Respondents.
3. Ambiguous statements should be avoided.

4. Acceptance or rejection should be based on reasoning

5. Statements should include attitude variables that are

measurable.
 Learning Objectives

Likert scale
• Likert scales use a slightly different approach which makes
their development somewhat easier. Again a number of
statements, both positive and negative are produced, but in this
case rather than asking for simple "agreement" or
"disagreement" with the item, the respondent is provided with
a range of possible responses
• Thus, using the above examples:
-The health services provided at this hospital are of the highest
standard
Strongly Agree, Agree, Undecided, Disagree, Strongly Disagree

-People should avoid smoking if they want to remain healthy

Strongly Agree, Agree, Undecided, Disagree, Strongly Disagree
 Learning Objectives

• An appropriate scoring scheme is associated with each of the

five possible responses, e.g. Strongly Agree = 5, Agree = 4,
Undecided = 3, Disagree = 2, Strongly Disagree = 1.
• The written scale may be replaced by a combination of written
and numerical thus:
• People should avoid smoking if they want to remain healthy
Strongly Agree 1...........2...........3............4............5 Strongly Disagree
• Sometimes, if the researcher wants to avoid, an undecided
category, then they may choose to use an even number of
choices, i.e. 4 or 6.
 Learning Objectives
Semantic differential
scale
• This scale is commonly used to compare
brands, determine the effectiveness of
advertising, attitude change, evaluation of
company image etc.
• It is a specialized scale.
• This is a bipolar one indicating attraction or
repulsion from an object.
 Learning Objectives

• E.g.
•
Please put an x at a point between the two extremes which indicates
your view about the service you received from the club

Fast to get through :__:__:__:__:__:__: slow to get through

Get the right person :__:__:__:__:__:__: get the wrong person

Staff are polite :__:__:__:__:__:__: staff are impolite

 Learning Objectives

• It is a type of survey question where respondents are

asked to rate their opinion on a linear scale between 2
endpoints, typically with 7 levels. For example:
Please rate this software on the following dimensions:
•
easy to use 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 hard to use
-or-
easy to use 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 hard to use
Learning Objectives
 Learning Objectives
Multi-dimensional
Scaling
• It aims at opening up the hidden structure of a set of
data.
• It helps us to represent the proximities between
objects in a map.
• Proximities means numbers indicating similarities or
differences between pair of objects, whereas objects
mean things or events.
• It attempts to map the object in multidimensional
space in such a way that it reveals the degree of
similarities or dissimilarities among them
 Learning Objectives
The Concept of Measurement
To explore the concepts of reliability
and Measurement Scales
and validity.

Evaluating the Reliability and Validity of Measurement

Sources of Measurement Differences
M=A+E
where: M = measurement
A = accuracy
E = error: random or systematic
1. A true difference in the characteristic being measured.
2. Differences due to stable characteristics of individual
respondents.
 Learning Objectives
Step Six: Evaluate the Reliability
To explore the concepts of reliability
and Validity of the Measurement
and validity.

3. Differences due to short-term personal factors.

4. Differences caused by situational factors.
5. Differences resulting from variations in administering the
survey.
6. Differences due to the sampling of items included in the
questionnaire.
7. Differences due to a lack of clarity in the measurement
instrument
8. Differences due to mechanical or instrument factors.
 Learning Objectives
Step Six: Evaluate the Reliability
To explore the concepts of reliability
and Validity of the Measurement
and validity.

Reliability
• Consistent results over time.
• Measures are free from random error.

Test-Retest Reliability
Obtained by repeating the measurement using the
same instrument under as nearly the same conditions
as possible.

Stability:
Few differences in scores are found between the
first and second tests.
 Learning Objectives
Step Six: Evaluate the Reliability
To explore the concepts of reliability
and Validity of the Measurement
and validity.

Equivalent Form Reliability

Avoids the test-retest by creating equivalent forms of
measurement instrument.

Determined by measuring the correlation of the scores

on the two instruments.

Internal Consistency Reliability

Assesses the ability to produce the similar results
using different samples to measure a phenomenon.
 Learning Objectives
Step Six: Evaluate the Reliability
To explore the concepts of reliability
and Validity of the Measurement
and validity.

Validity
Addresses the issue of whether what we tried to measure
was actually measured.

• Construct Validity
• Content Validity
• Criterion-Related Validity
• Predictive Validity
• Concurrent Validity
 Learning Objectives
Step Six: Evaluate the Reliability
To explore the concepts of reliability
and Validity of the Measurement
and validity.

• Construct Validity
• Convergent Validity
• Discriminate Validity

Relating the Measures to Assess Validity

All types of validity are interrelated in both theory and

practice.
 Learning Objectives
Step Six: Evaluate the Reliability
To explore the concepts of reliability
and Validity of the Measurement
and validity.

Reliability and Validity --- A Concluding Comment

See Figure 8.1 --- next slide
Situation 1: The lack of consistency means there is no
reliability
Situation 2: High reliability, but lacks validity
Situation 3: Reliable, consistent, and valid
Figure 8.1 Illustrations of Possible Reliability and
Learning Objectives
Validity Situations in Measurement

Situation 1 Situation 2 Situation 3

Neither Reliable Highly Reliable Highly Reliable

nor Valid nor Not Valid and Valid
 Learning Objectives
Attitude Measurement To become familiar with the concept
of scaling.
Scales

Scaling Defined

Procedures for attempting to determine quantitative

measures of subjective and sometimes abstract
concepts.
• Unidimensional scaling: one attribute
• Multidimensional scaling: several dimensions
 Learning Objectives
Attitude Measurement To become familiar with the concept
Scales of scaling.

Graphic Rating Scales

A graphic continuum typically anchored by two extremes
Easily constructed and simple to use.
Ability to discern fine distinctions
Itemized Rating Scales
Respondents must select from a limited number of
ordered categories rather than placing a check mark on a
continuous scale.
 Learning Objectives
Figure 8.2 Three Types of Rationing Scales

Scale A

Uncomfortable Comfortable

Scale B

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Uncomfortable Neutral Comfortable

 Learning Objectives
Considerations in To examine some basic
considerations in selecting a type of
Selecting a Scale
scale.

Some Basic Considerations When Selecting a Scale

• Type of Scale: Selecting a Rating, Ranking, Sorting, or
Purchase Intent Scale
• Balanced Versus Nonbalanced Alternatives
• Number of Scale Categories: odd or even number
• Forced Verses Nonforced Choice
 Learning Objectives
Enhancing the Value of To understand the importance of
Attitude Measures for attitude scales in management
Management Decision Making decision making.

Direct Questioning
• Ask consumers directly what factors they consider
important in a purchasing decision.
• Respondents are asked to state their reasons for
preferring one product or brand to another.
• Or, to rate their “ideal brand” for a given product in terms
of several product attributes so that an ideal profile can
be constructed.
 Learning Objectives
Enhancing the Value of
Attitude Measures for To understand the linkage between
Management Decision Making attitudes and marketing effectiveness.

• Dual Questioning
• Involves asking two questions concerning each
product attribute that might be determinant.
• Consumers are first asked directly what factors
they consider important in a purchasing decision,
and how they perceive these factors.
 Learning Objectives
Enhancing the Value of To realize the importance of attitude
Attitude Measures for scales in management decision
Management Decision Making making.

Indirect Questioning
Any interviewing approach that does not directly ask
respondents to indicate the reasons why they bought the
product or service.
Observation
• Shoppers are observed
• Detailed reports are recorded of movements and
statements when interacting with a product
• Conclusions are drawn
 Learning Objectives
Death
attitude
scale

• This scale shows the players perception on

death.
• How I Feel About Death?
• That statement best reflects your attitude
toward death...
• http://www.uwosh.edu/faculty_staff/hardt/
Death%20Questions/death_attitude_scale.h
tm
 Learning Objectives
SUMMARY

• The Concept of Measurement and Measurement Scales

• Four basic levels of measurement
• Concepts of Reliability and Validity
• Three ways to test assess reliability
 Learning Objectives
SUMMARY

• Attitudes, Behavior, and Marketing Effectiveness

• Concept of Scaling and various types of scales

• Considerations in selecting a type of scale

• Enhancing the Value of Attitude Measures for Management

Decision Making
 Learning Objectives

The End