Sie sind auf Seite 1von 52

Bi lingual ism

suffix that
two articulated with describes an
the tongue action or
process
Bloomfield, 1933: Bilingualism is the native-like control of two
languages
Haugen, 1953: bilingualism begins at the point where the speaker
of one language can produce complete meaningful utterances in the
other language
Diebolds, 1964: Incipient bilingualism the initial stages of contact
between two languages
Mackey, 1968: the alternate use of two or more languages
Degree focus on ability. How well does the bilingual know each of the
languages?
Function focus on the uses the speaker has for each of the languages
and the roles these languages play.
Alternation focus on to what point the individual alternates between
the languages.
Interference focus on to what point the speaker is able to distinguish
between the two languages, keeping them apart or allowing them to
merge together.
Types of Bilingualism
Individual Level
Weinreich (1967)
Coordinate bilingualism
Compound bilingualism
Sub-coordinate bilingualism
Coordinate bilingualism
The learning of two languages in two different settings
the words of the languages are kept completely
separated
each word has its own independent meaning
E.g. school bilingualism: an English student studying
Spanish at school = 2 languages, 2 different contexts.
Book .v. libro

Book Libro
Compound bilingualism
The learning of two languages in the same context, used at
the same time
The two languages have an amalgamated representation;
inter-reliant
Loewe (1888) two-member system of the same language
E.g. cultural bilingualism: an individual at home who has an
English mother and Spanish father, and speaks the two
languages with their parents.

Book Libro
Sub-coordinate bilingualism
Individual interpreting the words of his weaker
language via the words of his/her stronger language
The bilingual has one set of meanings established
through his/hers first language, with a different
linguistic system attached to them.
E.g. a Spanish person hears the word book in
English, relates the word to their stronger language
(libro) inducing the meaning of the word in English.

Book Libro Book


Types of Bilingualism
Social Level (diglossia)
Fisherman et al. (1966)
Typologies of bilingualism based on
societal variables focusing on the prestige
and status of the languages involved.
Elite
Folk
Bilingual behaviour
Code-switching
Gumperz (1982): the juxtaposition within the same
speech exchange of passages of speech belonging to
two different grammatical systems or subsystems
Borrowing
Johanson (1992): the copying of a form from one
language system (the lexicon of Y) into another (X)
Interference
Haugen (1956): the overlapping of two languages, or
application of two systems to the same item
Language maintenance,
shift and death.
Examples of factors that can affect shift, maintenance and death;

Numerical strength: Large minority groups often stand a better chance of


maintaining their language, with more people to mobilize it.

Social class: the people who speak a language also play an important role its
survival rather than the number of people that speak it.

Ties with the homeland/native language: Refugees may reject their first
language owing to its connections with the turmoil they left behind.

Exogamous marriage: In Wales, due to an out-migration of Welsh speakers


and an influx of English speakers, the number of exogamous marriages (in
which English almost always dominates) now equals those in which both
partners are Welsh (data collected 1981).

Attitudes of the majority towards the minority: If speakers of the minority


language manage to find an ecological niche in the majority community, which
is conducive to language maintenance, they may have a better chance of
survival. (Romaine, 1989).

The relationship between dialect and standard: With regards to education,


when the extent of the difference between the variety spoken at home and the
school standard is substantial, children may experience considerable
difficulties. (ibid).
Types of bilingual communities

In an extreme case a community may have strict


separation of domains with stable bilingualism.

Conversely, a communitys bilingualism may be


very unstable using both languages in all
domains.

Intermediate communities may use one language


for certain domains but both in others.
Domains and other sources of variance in language
behaviour

Media variance: Writing, reading and speaking: The shift and


maintenance of a language can be affected by the point at
which each language media is obtained.

Role variance: The degree of shift and maintenance may


also be affected by inner speech, comprehension and
production.

Situational variance: Shift and maintenance may also relate


to how formal or intimate the communication is.

Domain variance: There are several distinguishable domains


of language behaviour which may affect the degree of shift
and maintenance. E.g. autonomy, power, influence, domain
centrality.
Group, situation and topic in language choice

Group:

Group membership can be observed with criteria such as age, sex, race
and religion.
It is also apparent in a socio-psychological sense of reference group
member.

Situation:

Aspects of situation: participants, physical setting, topics and functions.


Style; intimacy-distance, formality-informality, solidarity-non-solidarity,
status equality-inequality.
Bilinguals usually view one of their languages to be more dialectal.

Topic:

Certain topics tend to be handled better in one language than the other.
A language may deal with a certain topic better than another because the
latter lacks the specific terminology required of the subject.
Grosjeans view on language choice

Four factors that may affect the choice of language;

the setting and situation,

the participants in the interaction and their roles in


relation to one another,

the topic (work, sports, national events),

the function of the interaction.


Loanwords: Catanyol

Spelling:

-"extendre" instead of "estendre" also


"extens" and "extensi" (extend)

-"extranger" and "extrany" instead of


"estranger" and "estrany" (foreigner/ foreign)
Loanwords: Catanyol
Morphology
Changes in verbal conjugation:

-"abastir" instead of "abastar".


-"aclarar" instead of "aclarir". (Clarify)
-"reflexar" instead of "reflectir". (Reflect)
-"combatir" instead of "combatre". (Fight)
Loanwords: Catanyol
Morphology:
Prepositions and conjunctions :
-"a causa de", "per ra de" instead of the Castilian "degut a" (taken
from the English 'due to').
-"a finals de" instead of the original "a la fi de", "a la darreria de", "al
final de".
-"a principis de" instead of the original "al comenament de, "al
principi de". (At the beginning of)
-no obstant instead of no obstant aix" o "aix no obstant".
-"per a" and not "per", in all the cases.
-"sempre que" and not the Castilian "sempre i quan".
-"tal com" and not "tal i com".
prefixes and suffixes:
The Castilian suffix ar substitutes the Catalan ari.
- "interdisciplinar" instead of "interdisciplinari".
Loanwords: Catanyol
Lexicology: Locutions
-Anar a ms" (cast. "ir a ms") (to increase) : Anar ms
lluny, progressar
-"Brindar una oportunitat" (instead of the Catalan "donar
una oportunitat") (Bring an oportunity).
-"Fer la pilota" (that in Catalan would be said: "fer la
rosca")(to suck up to someone)
-"Fer-se el suec" (instead of the traditional "fer el
longuis" o "fer l'orni") (to act dumb). In Catalan the
pronoun se in these kind of expressions is not used.
(e.g.: *"fer-se el sord" - "fer el sord").
- "Fet i dret" (cast. "hecho y derecho") instead of "de cap
a peus".
Code-switching: Example
[Cat.]
El tercer dia es el pitjor. El primer est b, perqu ets
mrtir. El segon, aguantes perque ho vas fer el primer.
Per, el tercer, et dius; [Cast.] No puedo ms!! Me
da igual!!

(The third day is the worst. The first is okay, because


youre a martyr. The second day, you bear it because
you did it the first day. But the third day you say to
yourself, I cant stand it any more!! I dont care!!).
Language Competence in the BAC
(Language competence in the BAC across age groups (1996
Census data)
USE OF GALICIAN CONDICIONATED BY SOCIAL VARIETIES

Age: Galician: Main language to old people (80 6 %)


Main language to young people under 25
(367%)
Place where you live: Galician: Main language in the villages
(858%)
Main language in the cities
(167 %)
Studies and jobs:
- Studies: People with studies: Galicia, as main
language (191 %)
Peoble without studies: Galicia as a
main language (926%)
- Jobs: Unskilled worker: Galicia, as main language (961 %)
Skilled worker: Galicia, as main language (142 %)
PERIODS IN HISTORY AND SPEAKERS IN GALICIA

1. 1919- 1949 ( Ages: 60- 90 years old)


Most of the people lived in villages and spoke Galician
There was no education in Galician Galician was transmitted
between generations without an education.
Not to much education in Castilian.

MONOLINGUALISM IN FAVOUR OF THE GALICIAN


DIGLOSIA:
-Formal situations: Castilian

- Informal situations: Galician


2. 1949- 1969 (Ages: 40- 60 years old)

Galician was forbidden


People were educated in Galician
A separation between life in the country and life in the city
conditions the use of the language -> DIGLOSIA
Feeling of shame -> LOSS OF GALICIAN

3. 1969- 1984 (Ages: 25- 40 years old)

People were educated in Castilian


Galicia become a minority language

BILINGUISM: in villages
MONOLINGUALISM: in cities
DIGLOSIA: -Formal situations: Galician
-Informal situations: Castilian

4. 1984- Today (Ages: under 25 years old)

The language most used in cities is Castilian ->


MONOLINGUALISM

People were educated in Castilian, but their parents spoke


Galician.
People heard Castilian in routine situations, but they decide start
to study it

BILINGUALISM

People as victim of the new situation of diglosia


Conclusion

PROCESS OF DESGALEIZACIN

REVERSE PROCESS OF DIGLOSIA


Key scholars
Charles A. Ferguson (1921-1998)
Diglossia, 1959, Word vol. 15: 325-340
-introduces the concept

Joshua A. Fishman (1926-)


-develops Fergusons ideas
-introduces extended bilingualism
Fergusons definition of diglossia

a relatively stable language situation in which, in addition


to the primary dialects of the language (which may
include a standard or regional standards), there is a very
divergent, highly codified (often grammatically more
complex) superposed variety, the vehicle of a large and
respected body of written literature, either of an earlier
period or in another speech community, which is learned
largely by formal education and is used for most written
and formal spoken purposes but is not used by any
section of the community for ordinary conversation
(1959)
Fergusons definition of diglossia
a specific relationship between 2 or more varieties of
the same language in use in a speech community in
different functions (1972: 232)

One variety is superposed, labelled H, whilst the other


variety(ies) are L and can be distinguished through their
functional specialisation

NB. Polyglossia = when more than two varieties are


involved
Typical situations for
H and L varieties
High usages:
sermon in church/mosque
personal letter
speech in parliament/political speech
university lecture
news broadcast
newspaper editorial, news story
poetry

Low usages:
instructions to waiters
conversations with family, friends, colleagues
radio soap opera
caption on political cartoon
folk literature

Overlap between the two - in all defining speech communities it is typical to


read aloud from a newspaper in H and discuss its contents in L.
Areas in which H and L differ
Function H and L different purposes, native speakers would find it odd if anyone
used H in an L domain or L in an H domain

Prestige H more highly valued


Literary heritage literature normally in H variety, no written uses of L
Acquisition L variety learned first, H acquired through schooling
Standardisation H strictly standardised, L rarely standardised
Stability diglossias generally stable
Grammar H more complex than L
Lexicon often shared, but differentiations in vocabulary
Phonology two kinds of systems H and L share same phonological elements but
H has more complicated morphophenomics, or where H has contrasts that L lacks but may borrow
Diglossic communities
Haiti
H French
L - Haitian creole
Switzerland
H standard German
L Swiss German
Egypt
H Classical Arabic
L colloquial Arabic
Institutional support systems
L typically acquired at home as a mother tongue continued
use throughout life familiar interactions
H learned through socialisation and never at home
Diglossic societies are marked by access restriction i.e.
entry to formal institutions such as school and government
requires knowledge of H

Importance attached by community members to using the


right variety in the appropriate context speakers regard H as
superior to L in a number of respects
in some cases speakers claim they do not speak L
alleged superiority for religious and/or literary reasons
strong tradition of formal grammatical study and standardisation
associated with H
How does diglossia come about?
Examples:
-sizeable body of literature in a language
closely related to natural language of the
community - this literature embodies some
of the fundamental values of the group
-literacy in the community limited to a
small elite
Power and prestige
H - greater international prestige, language of
the local power elite, or dominant religious
community
H-variety language = language of more powerful
section of the society
French Canada English (H)
greatest prestige in North America and internationally
population numerically greater than community of
French speakers,
speech community is economically dominant, in both
the English and French areas of Canada
Fishmans diglossia
Extended diglossia:
includes speech communities in which the high
and low varieties are not necessarily close
related varieties
Two or more varieties are mother tongues, each of
different segments of the population

Paraguay Spanish (H), Guarani (L)


-both are mother tongues for different groups
Fishmans extended diglossia
4 variations of linguistic relationship between Hs
and Ls
H as classical, L as vernacular, the two being
genetically related
H as classical, L as vernacular, the two not being
genetically related
H as written/formal-spoken and L as vernacular, the
two being genetically unrelated to each other
H as written/formal-spoken and L as vernacular, the
two being genetically related to each other
Diglossia vs. Bilingualism
Bilingualism - two languages of an
individual
Diglossia - two languages in society
Fishman - the relationship between
societal diglossia and individual
bilingualism is not necessary or causal
bilingualism with and without diglossia
diglossia with and without bilingualism
Diglossia without Bilingualism
political or governmental diglossia - two or more
differently monolingual entities brought together
under one political roof
Canada, Belgium, Switzerland
institutional protection for more than one
language at the federal level, though widespread
monolingualism in individual territories
Both diglossia with and without bilingualism tend
to be relatively stable, long-term arrangements.
Examples of diglossia in Spain
The first and most notable is the case of
Galician. There still exists one
fundamental problem in the region
according to Loureiro-Rodrguez:

The fact that the Galician language has been


historically considered inferior, even among
the majority of its speakers, has made the
functional and realization process more
challenging (2007:123)
Galician has traditionally been an oral language,
with Castilian being used for written
communication; as such it gains a level of prestige
as it is the language used for official purposes.

For the majority of older speakers of Galician (the


category which has the highest number of
speakers) they were never educated in Galician,
solely in Castilian, and so there has always been a
diglossic situation, using Galician as there means
of oral communication but switching to Castilian
for written communication.
Since becoming co-official in the region
Galician went through a process of
normalisation to create a standard version
of the language.

However the standard that was produced


did not reflect the many local varieties of
the language.
What developed then were high and low
versions of Galician, the standard variety
which was considered as high, and the local
variants considered to be the low varieties.

As a result when in a more official


environment, the speakers of the low variety
often opt for speaking Castilian instead of
Galician because they do not feel confident
with the high variety.
A contrary example but one which still focuses on
diglossia is Catalonia.

Unlike Galicia, Catalonia receives high numbers of


immigrants, particularly from other areas of Spain.

In Catalonia the majority of public life is carried out


in the medium of Catalan and as a result it has
prestige within the region, and thus when
considered alongside Castilian it is seen as the
high variety with Castilian as the low variety.
Those people that move to the region that are
not Catalan speaking find themselves in a
diglossic situation:

No doubt many of them feel socially


disadvantaged as they often come from a low
socioeconomic background and live in poor
housing areas, often in large, homogenous
groups. For everyday purposes they probably
dont need to use Catalan, although of course,
they may resent to feel in a linguistically inferior
position (Hoffman, 1996:75)
My final example of diglossia in Spain is
that of Arans in the Valle de Arn.

Almost all the inhabitants of this region


speak Arans and use it at home and
family circles. However the language of
administration in the region is Castilian.
And so we have a classic case of diglossia, with speakers of
Arans switching to Castilian depending on the circumstance
such as official or administrative purposes.

El uso fuera del entorno familiar est dominado por el


castellano, sobre todo en las generaciones ms jvenes. Por el
contrario, en cuanto al conocimiento de la lengua, ha
aumentado, por efecto de la escolarizacin en arans. Lo que
muestra que los medios puestos para la enseanza de la lengua
en la escuela han sido muy superiores a las medidas de poltica
lingstica que iban dirigidas a fomentar su uso. Lo que muestra
la necesidad urgente de una activacin de las medidas
destinadas a la promocin y uso de la lengua, que fuera llevada
a cabo con la seriedad y el rigor necesarios. (Etxebarria,
2002:311)
Bibliography
Skutnabb-Kangas, Tove .Bilingualism or not : the education of minorities / Tove Skutnabb-Kangas / t . -
Clevedon : Multilingual Matters, 1981 .
Grosjean, F (1982). Life with two languages; Massachusetts, Harvard University Press.
Romaine, S (1989). Bilingualism. Oxford, Basil Blackwell.
Benjamins, John (2008). Bilingualism and Identity: Spanish at the crossroads with other languages. Edited
by Nio-Murcia, M. & Rothman, J. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Co.
Hoffman, Charlotte Monolingualism, Bilingualism, Cultural Pluralism and National Identity: Twenty Years of
Language Planning in Contemporary Spain, Monolingualism and Bilingualism Lessons from Canada and Spain,
Ed. Sue Wright (Clevedon; Philadelphia; Adelaide: Multilingual Matters Ltd., 1996)
Etxebarria, Maitena La Diversidad de Lenguas en Espaa, (Madrid: Editorial Espasa, 2002)
Loureiro-Rodrguez, Vernica Are Galicians bound to diglossia? Spanish in Contact: Policy, Social and
Linguistic Inquiries, Ed. Kim Potowski and Richard Cameron (Amsterdam; Philadelphia: John Benjamins
Publishing Company, 2007)
Conde, Xavier Fras A Brief Outline of Historical Sociolinguistics of the Galician Language, Romania
Alternativa
Rei-Doval, Gabriel, A Lingua Galega Na Cidade No Sculo XX: Unha aproximacin sociolingstica
(Salamanca: Edicins Xerais de Galicia, 2007)
Maria Yanhez e Monica Ares. Linguas cruzadas (2007)
Manuel Gonzlez Gonzlez, Modesto A. Rodriguez Neira, Antonio Fernndez Salgado, Xaqun, Loredo Gutirrez,
Isabel Surez Fernndez, Mapa sociolinguistico de Galicia 2004. Volumen I. Lingua inicial e competencia
linguistica en Galicia.

Das könnte Ihnen auch gefallen