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Volcanoes
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 Avolcanoisarupturein
thecrustofaplanet,thatallows
hotlava,volcanicash,andgasesto
escapefromamagmachamber
belowthesurface.

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 MoltenrockthatisbeneaththeEarths
surfaceiscalledmagma.Whena
volcanoerupts,themagmaisthencalled
lavawhenitreachesthesurface.

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Ashandvolcanicdustarealso
emittedduringaneruption.

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Volcanic ash consists of fragments of pulverized rock, minerals and volcanic glass, created during
volcanic eruptions. Due to its wide dispersal, volcanic ash can have a number of impacts on society,
including human and animal health, disruption to aviation, disruption to electric power supply,
telecommunications and transportation, as well as agriculture, buildings and structures.
 www.mrobroin.com

Speed: Upto700km/h(450mph)
Volcanoesareoftenfoundatmeetingpoints
ofwhatarecalled"tectonicplates".
TheseplatesarepiecesoftheEarth'ssurface
thatfittogetherjustlikeajigsawpuzzle.

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Major Volcanoes
around the World www.mrobroin.com
The Pacific Ring of Fire
ThePacificRingofFireisanareaof
frequentearthquakesand
volcaniceruptionsaround
thePacificOcean.

TheRingofFirehasover450volcanoes
andishometoover50%ofthe
world'sactiveanddormantvolcanoes.

90%oftheworld'searthquakes
occuralongtheRingofFire.

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 Volcanoesaren'tonlyfoundontheboundariesoftectonicplates,though.
Theycanalsooccurover"mantleplumes"-superhotareasofrockinsidetheEarth.

AgoodexampleofthisistheHawaiianislands.
Theyaretheexposedpeaksofagreatunderseamountainrange
knownastheHawaiianEmperorseamountchain,formedby
volcanicactivityoverahotspotintheEarth'smantle.
Theislandsareabout1,860miles(3,000km)fromthenearest
continent,andarepartoftheUnitedStates.
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Lavaflowsinmany
differentwaysdepending
onitsviscosityorthickness
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 Asimulationofsubstances
withdifferentviscosities.
Thesubstanceonthelefthas
lowerviscositythanthe
substanceontheright.

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Famous Volcanic Eruptions

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Mt. Vesuvius, is an active volcano that looms over

The Bay of Naples in southern Italy.
It has erupted well over 30 times that we know of.
 Vesuviusmostfamouseruptiontookplacein79AD,
whenamultidayeruptioncoveredthecitiesof
PompeiiandStabiaeinvolcanicash.

DuringtheexcavationofPompeii,
plasterwasusedtofillinthevoidsin
theashlayersthatonceheldhuman
bodies.Thisallowedarchaeologists
toseetheexactpositiontheperson
wasinwhenheorshedied. www.mrobroin.com
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PlinytheYounger,theauthoroftheonlysurvivingeyewitnessaccount,describedasuddenexplosion
followedbyblanketsofashthatfellonpeopleastheytriedtoescape.ThetotalnumberofVesuvius'
victimswillmostlikelyneverbeknown,butarchaeologistsareawareofatleast1,000.
ThisphotoshowstheexcavatedruinsofPompeiiwithVesuviusinthebackground.
In1883,thevolcanoontheIndonesianislandofKrakatoaerupted
with13,000timesthepowerofanatomicbomb.

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 ThesoundofKrakatoas
eruptionwasreportedly
heardupto3,000milesaway.

Theexplosiveeruptionis
consideredtheloudestsound
heardinmodernhistory.
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HundredsinanearbySumatrantowndiedalmostinstantlywhenflamingashincineratedtheir
homes,andmanymorewerewashedawaybysubsequentmega-tsunamis.

Anestimated36,000perishedintotal.

Krakatoa Island before

the eruption in 1883.

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Krakatoaitselfthenslumpedintotheboilingdepthsoftheocean,butanewisland
atthesitewasbornin1927duetovolcanicactivity,anditcontinuestogrowby
spittinglavaintothesky.It'sbeendubbedAnakKrakatoa,orChildofKrakatoa.

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MountSt.HelensinWashingtonStateintheUSAwasgettingreadytoburstfornearlytwo
monthsbeforeitexploded.Ithadpreviouslybeendormantfor120years.Whilethe
eruptionwasanticipated,themannerinwhichitoccurredwascompletelyunprecedented.
 At8:32a.m.onMay18,1980,a5.1-magnitudeearthquaketriggeredasidewaysblast
thatsweptthemountain'snorthfaceawayintoacascadinglandslidethatshothotash
andstoneoutsome15milesatspeedsofatleast300m.p.h.
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 Atthesametime,amushroom-shapedplumeofashshot16milesintotheair,eventually
coveringthreestates.CompletedarknessblanketedSpokane,Wash.,acityabout250miles
northeastofthevolcano.

Whentheashcamedownitfellintheformofblackrainthatliterallycoatedtheresidents
ofWashington,IdahoandpartsofMontanawithafinegraypowder.Fifty-sevenpeopleand
thousandsofanimalswerekilled,andsome200squaremilesoftreeswereobliterated.

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Duringthe1980eruptionofMountSt.Helens,SpiritLakereceivedthefullimpact
ofthelateralblastfromit.Theblastandthedebrisavalanchefromthiseruption
forcedlakewatersasahugewaveasmuchas850ft(260m)abovelakelevel
onthemountainslopesalongthenorthshorelineofthelake.
 www.mrobroin.com

Thedebrisavalanchedepositedabout350,000acre-feetoftrees,otherplantmaterial,
volcanicash,andvolcanicdebrisofvariousoriginsintoSpiritLake.
ThousandsoftreelogsremaininthewatersofSpiritLaketothisday.
 MountSt.Helensgaveatwo-monthwarningthatitwasabouttoerupt.
Sadlymostofthevictimsweretouristswhodeliberatelycametoseetheeruption.
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 www.mrobroin.com
DavidAlexanderJohnston(December18,1949May18,1980)wasan
AmericanUSGSvolcanologistwhowaskilledbythe1980eruptionofMountSt.Helens.
HewasontheUSGSmonitoringteam,andwaskilledintheeruptionwhilemanningan
observationpost6miles(10km).Hewasthefirsttoreporttheeruption,transmitting
"Vancouver!Vancouver!Thisisit!"beforehewassweptawaybyalateralblast.
Despiteathoroughsearch,Johnston'sbodywasneverfound,butremnantsof
hisUSGStrailerwerefoundin1993.Thisphotowastakenjust13hoursbeforehisdeath.
 TheVolcanicExplosivity
Indexgoesupto8.

Onthatscale,the1815
eruptionofMountTambora
ratesaverydestructive7.

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Theexplosiontookplaceontheisland
ofSumbawa(thenintheDutchEast
Indies,nowIndonesia)andplunged
theregionintodarkness,butitseffects
wereanythingbutisolated.

Plumesofashreachedanaltitude
ofover40km,andasaresultof
theashcoverglobaltemperatures
droppedbyabout3C.

Tensofthousandsofpeoplewere
killedbytheapocalypticeruption,
subsequenttsunamisand
ensuingstarvationanddisease.

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Thelargestvolcaniceruptioninrecordedhistory
changedtheworld'sclimatesomuch
(evencropsinEuropeandNorthAmericafailed)
that1816becameknownas
"theyearwithoutasummer."

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 MountTamboraitselfshrankseveralthousandfeet
andtradeditspeakforamassivecrateratitssummit.
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 Thesecond-largestvolcaniceruptionof
the20thcentury,andbyfarthelargest
eruptiontoaffectadenselypopulated
area,occurredatMountPinatuboonthe
islandofLuzon,thePhilippinesonJune
15,1991.Theeruptionproducedhigh-
speedavalanchesofhotashandgas,
giantmudflows,andacloudofvolcanic
ashhundredsofmilesacross.

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 The ash cloud from the 1991 eruption covered
an area of more than 100,000 sq km
and the island of Luzon was plunged into darkness.

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 A pickup truck flees from the Pyroclastic Flow spewing from the Mt. Pinatubo

Pyroclasticflowisadense,destructivemassofvery
hotash,lavafragments,andgasesejectedexplosively
www.mrobroin.com fromavolcanoandtypicallyflowingatgreatspeed.
 Theformersummitofthevolcanowasobliterated
andreplacedbyacaldera2.5km(1.6mi)wide.
Itnowcontainsalakeduetohighrainfallinthearea.

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TheIcelandicvolcanoEyjafjallajkulleruptedin2010.
ItispronouncedEy-ya-fiair-tla-kly-y-kuutl

Thecloudofvolcanicashthatwasemittedcovered
alargeareaacrossEurope,andcausednumerous
flightstoandfromEuropetobecancelled.

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ParcutinvolcanolocatedinMexicothatsurgedsuddenly
fromthecornfieldoflocalfarmerDionisioPulidoin1943,
attractingbothpopularandscientificattention.
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 Itappearedon20thFebruary,1943,
andwithinaweekitwas5storiestall.

Bytheendofayear,
ithadgrowntoover336m.
Itendeditsgrowthin1952,
ataheightof424m.

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Mauna Kea is a dormant shield volcano on the island of Hawaii.

Itstandsat4,207m(13,802ft)abovesealevel,butmuchofthemountainisunderwater.
Whenmeasuredfromitsoceanicbase,MaunaKeaisover10,000m(33,000ft)tall,
makingittheworld'stallestmountainfrombasetosummit,surpassingMountEverest.

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Avolcanologistorvulcanologistisageologistwhostudiestheprocessesinvolvedinthe
formationanderuptiveactivityofvolcanoesandtheircurrentandhistoriceruptions.
Monitoring Volcanic Activity

TheUnitedStatesGeologicalSurvey
isascientificagencyofthe
UnitedStatesgovernment.

ThescientistsoftheUSGSstudy
thelandscapeoftheUnitedStates,
itsnaturalresources,andthe
naturalhazardsthatthreatenit.

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 350million,oronein20peopleintheworld
livewithin'dangerrange'ofanactivevolcano
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 Vulcanmadearmourfortheothergods.
HisforgewasunderaVolcano.
TheGreekequivalentgodoffirewascalledHephaestus.
AncientRomansbelievedthatthelavaandsmokethatcame
outoftheVolcanocamefromVulcansforgeashemade
weaponsforMarsandThunderboltsforJupiter.
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Pumiceisauniquevolcanicrock(igneous)thatcanfloatinwater.
Itcanalsobeusedasanabrasiveandissometimesused
inbeautysalonsforremovingdryskin.

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 Stages of a Volcanos Life
Thethreestagesofavolcanoareactive,dormantandextinct.
Anactivevolcanoiseruptingorshowingsignsthatitisgoingtoerupt,suchasemittinggas.

Adormantvolcanoisnotactive,butitcouldbecomeactiveagain.

Anextinctvolcanoisunlikelytoeruptagain.

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 Whenyouimagineavolcano,youmightpictureitasalarge,slope-sidedmountain,
butvolcanoescanactuallybeavarietyofshapes.Shield(flat),composite(tallandthin),
cindercones(circularorovalcones),andlavadomes(wheredome-shapeddepositsof
hardenedlavahavebuiltuparoundthevent,asthelavaistoothicktoflowveryfar).

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 Volcanoes don't just occur on land.
They can be found on the ocean floor and
under ice caps too. Sometimes volcanoes
under the sea form new islands as the erupt.

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Eruption Types
Volcanoes erupt in many different ways

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 Volcaniclightningoccursmostly
withinthecloudofashduringan
eruption,andiscreatedbythe
frictionoftheashrushingtothe
surface.Roughly200accountsofthis
lightninghavebeenwitnessedlive.

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A supervolcanic eruption The last one happened in

occurs somewhere in the Indonesia 74,000 years ago...
world approximately suggesting the planet might be
every 50,000 years or so. overdue the next one.
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There are about 40 known supervolcanoes around the world, most are extinct.
The one with the most lethal potential, however, is the Yellowstone supervolcano
as it's situated in the heart of a country which is home to 300 million people.

The supervolcanic crater at Yellowstone

is over 80 kilometres long by 45
kilometres wide - large enough to hold
The force of a supervolcanic the world's biggest city, Tokyo
eruption at Yellowstone would be (population 18 million).
the equivalent of 1,000 Hiroshima
bombs exploding every second.
A super-eruption at Yellowstone would eject over 2,000 million tonnes of sulphuric acid
into the stratosphere. This would form a veil around the earth that deflects sunlight,
triggering a catastrophic volcanic winter.

Temperatures would drop by up to 12 degrees in the northern hemisphere

and up to 16 degrees in the southern hemisphere
causing mass starvation as the life-giving monsoon rains would fail.
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OlympusMons(LatinforMountOlympus)isaverylargeshieldvolcanoontheplanetMars.
ItisthelargestknownmountainintheSolarSystem.

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SizecomparisonofOlympus
MonswithFrance

OlympusMonsissotallthatitessentially
sticksoutofMarsatmosphere.

Itis550kmacrossatthebasesowidethatifyou
werestandingattheedgeofthecaldera,thebase
ofthevolcanowouldbebeyondthehorizon.
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Volcanoes
Earthquakes

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 Anearthquake(alsoknownasaquakeortremor)istheshaking
ofthesurfaceoftheEarth,resultingfromthesuddenreleaseofenergy
intheEarth'scrustthatcreatesseismicwaves.

Earthquakescanbeviolentenoughtodestroywholecities.
Theseismicityorseismicactivityofanareareferstothefrequency,
typeandsizeofearthquakesexperiencedoveraperiodoftime.

Earthquakesarecausedmostlybyruptureofgeologicalfaults,andthe
movementoftheEarthsTectonicPlates,butalsobyothereventssuch
asvolcanicactivity,landslides,mineblasts,andnucleartests.

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TheRichterScaleassignsamagnitudenumberbetween1-10
toquantifythesizeofanearthquake.
Seismometersorseismographsareinstrumentsthatmeasure
motionoftheground,includingthoseofseismicwavesgenerated
byearthquakes,volcaniceruptions,andotherseismicsources.

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CharlesFrancisRichter(1900-1985)
wasanAmericanseismologist,
physicist,andthecreatorofthe
Richtermagnitudescalein1935.

TheRichterScalewas
replacedin2002bythe
MomentMagnitudeScale.
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 Moment
Magnitude Scale
(MMS)

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 Themostpowerfulearthquakeever
Major Recorded Earthquakes recordedonEarthwasinValdivia,Chile
in1960,withamagnitudeof9.5.

2004Tsunami
2011Tsunami

**EstimatedMagnitude
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 Major Recorded Earthquakes

**EstimatedMagnitude
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Deadliest Earthquake
on Record
The1556Shaanxiearthquakewasa
catastrophicearthquakeandisalso
thedeadliestearthquakeonrecord,
killingapproximately830,000people.

Itoccurredonthemorningof
23rdJanuary1556inChinaduring
theMingDynasty.An840km-wide
(520mi)areawasdestroyed.

Wedontknowwhatmagnitudethe
earthquakewasasitoccurredwell
beforemodernrecordingtechnology.
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 TheearthquakeoffthecoastofJapan
in2011wassostrong,
thattallbuildingswerevisiblyswaying.

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 The1906SanFranciscoearthquakestruckthecoastofCaliforniaon18thAprilwithanestimated
momentmagnitudeof7.8.Devastatingfiressoonbrokeoutinthecityandlastedforseveraldays.
Asaresult,between3,000-6,000peoplediedandover80%ofthecityofSanFranciscowasdestroyed.
Theeventsarerememberedasoneoftheworstanddeadliestnaturaldisasters
inthehistoryoftheUnitedStates.
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JapanesemythologysaysthatNamazu,agiantcatfish,is
responsibleforearthquakes. www.mrobroin.com
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Earthquake-proofbeds:
ScaryorGenius?

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Atsunami(whichmeans"harbourwaveinJapanese),
alsoknownasaseismicseawave,isaseriesofwaves
inawaterbodycausedbythedisplacementofalarge
volumeofwater,generallyinanoceanoralargelake.

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Earthquakes,volcaniceruptions,landslides,glaciercalvings,meteoriteimpactsandother
disturbancesaboveorbelowwaterallhavethepotentialtogenerateatsunami.

SometimespeoplerefertoTsunamisastidalwaves.
ThisisincorrectastheyhavenothingtodowiththetidalpulloftheMoonortheSun.
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Theseaswellsandasthewavesreachtheland,theyrisetomuchgreaterheights.
Thisisknownaswaveshoaling.

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Tsunamisarentalwaysasdramaticastheyareinfilms,buttheyareequallyasdevastating.
Oftenthetsunamiarrivestotheshoreasaswellofwaterratherthanatallwave.

Japan2011

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www.mrobroin.com
 The2004IndianOceanearthquakeoccurred
on26Decemberwiththeepicentreoffthe
westcoastofSumatra,Indonesia.

Theshockhadamomentmagnitudeof9.19.3.

Theunderseamegathrustearthquaketriggered
aseriesofdevastatingtsunamisalongthecoastsof
mostcountriesborderingtheIndianOcean,
killing230,000peoplein14countries,
andinundatingcoastalcommunities
withwavesupto30metreshigh.

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The2011earthquakeoffthePacificcoastof
ThokuinJapanwasamagnitude9.09.1
underseamegathrustearthquakethat
occurredonFriday11March2011,
withtheepicentreapproximately70km
eastoftheOshikaPeninsulaofThoku.

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Theearthquaketriggeredpowerfultsunamiwavesthatreachedheightsofupto40.5m
inMiyakoinThoku,andwhich,intheSendaiarea,travelledupto10kminland.

TheearthquakemovedHonshu(Japansmainisland)2.4meast,andshiftedtheEarthon
itsaxisbybetween10cmand25cm.
Theearthquakealsocauseddamagetothe
FukushimaDaiichiNuclearPowerPlant.

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Thesenext5picturesshowthedevastationthatatsunami
cancause.Thistookplacewithinlessthan15minutes.
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 Tsunamicausedbya
manmadeexplosioninalake.
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Revision

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