Group Theory

Abstract Algebra
Definition of a Group
A Group G is a collection of elements
together with a binary operation* which
satisfies the following properties:

Closure
Associativity
Identity
Inverses

* A binary operation is a function on G

which assigns an element of G to each
ordered pair of elements in G. For
example, multiplication and addition are
binary operations.
Classification of Groups
Groups may be Finite or Infinite; that is, they
may contain a finite number of elements, or an
infinite number of elements

Also, groups may be Commutative or

Non-Commutative,
that is, the commutative property may or may
not apply to all elements of the group.
Commutative groups are also called Abelian
groups.
Examples of Groups
Examples of Groups:

Infinite, Abelian:

The Integers under Addition (Z. +)

The Rational Numbers without 0 under multiplication (Q*, X)

Infinite, Non-Abelian:

The nonsingular nxn matrices under matrix multiplication

Finite, Abelian:

The Integers Mod n under Modular Addition (Zn , +)

 Properties of a Group:
Closure
If we combine any two elements in the group under the binary operation, the
result is always another element in the group.

Example:
The Integers under Addition, (Z, +)

1 and 2 are elements of Z,

1+2 = 3, also an element of Z

Non-Examples:
The Odd Integers are not closed under Addition. For example, 3 and 5 are odd
integers, but 3+5 = 8 and 8 is not an odd integer.

The Integers lack inverses under Multiplication, as do the Rational numbers (because
of 0.) However, if we remove 0 from the Rational numbers, we obtain an infinite
closed group under multiplication.
Properties of a Group: Associativity
The Associative Property, states that
(ab)c = a(bc). This may be extended to as
many elements as necessary.

For example:
In Integers,

a+(b+c) = (a+b)+c.

In Matrix Multiplication,

(A*B)*C=A*(B*C).

In function composition, Caution:

f*(g*h) = (f*g)*h.
This is a property of all groups.
The Commutative Property, also familiar
from ordinary arithmetic on real numbers,
does not generally apply to all groups!
Only Abelian groups are commutative.
 Properties of a Group: Identity

The Identity Property, familiar from

ordinary arithmetic on real numbers,
states that, for all elements a in G,
a+e = e+a = a.

For example,

in Integers, a+0 = 0+a = a.

In (Q*, X), a*1 = 1*a = a.
The Identity is Unique!
In Matrix Multiplication, A*I = I*A = A.

This is a property of all groups. There is only one identity

element in any group.

|1 0| = I This property is used in

proofs.
|0 1|
 Properties of a Group:
Inverses
The inverse of an element, combined with that element, gives the
identity.

Inverses are unique. That is, each element has exactly

one inverse, and no two distinct elements have the same inverse.
The uniqueness of inverses is used in proofs.

For example...

In (Z,+), the inverse of x is -x.

In (Q*, X), the inverse of x is 1/x.

In abstract algebra, the inverse of an element a is usually written a-1.

 Abelian Groups
Abelian Groups are groups which have the
Commutative property, a*b = b*a for all a and b in G.

Abelian groups are named after Neils Abel, a

Norwegian mathematician.

Abelian groups may be recognized

by a diagonal symmetry in their
Cayley table (a table showing the
group elements and the results of
their composition under the group
binary operation.)

This symmetry may be used in

constructing a Cayley table, if we
know that the group is Abelian.
Cayley tables for Z4 and U8
 Examples of Abelian Groups

Some examples of Abelian groups are:

The Integers under Addition, (Z,+)

The Non-Zero Rational Numbers under Multiplication, (Q*, X)

The Modular Integers under modular addition, (Zn, +)

All groups of order 4 are Abelian.

 Finite Groups
A finite groups, that is, groups with a finite number of elements.

The order of a group, |G|, is the number of elements in the group. The order of a group
may be finite or infinite.

The order of an element, |a|, is the smallest positive integer n such that an = e.

The order of an element may likewise be finite or infinite.

Note: if |a|=2 then a=a-1. If |a|=1 then a=e.
 Cancellation

In any group,

a*b = a*c implies that b = c and

c*a = b*a implies that c = b.

This is used in proofs.

 Socks and Shoes Property
When taking inverses of two or
more elements composed together,
the positions of the elements
reverse.

That is, (a*b)-1 = b-1*a-1. For more

elements, this generalizes to
(ab...yz)-1 = z-1y-1...b-1a-1.

In Abelian groups, it is also true

that (ab)-1 = a-1b-1 and (ab)n = anbn.
This also generalizes to more
elements.

Socks and shoes property as a

mnemonic, because the inverse of
putting on one's socks and shoes,
in that order, is removing ones
shoes and socks, in that order.
Example 1
Modular Arithmetic
What the devil is it?

On a digital clock, were we to

specify the hour as 27, what wed
actually mean is 3 in the morning.

These hours are the same in

modulo 24 arithmetic, i.e. our
numbers are limited to 0 to 23, after
which they loop back round.

27 3 (mod 24)

Wed say 27 is congruent to 3

modulo/mod 24
What the devil is it?

This operator usually means equivalent, and in this

context more specifically means congruent.
What the devil is it?

?
Properties of Modular Arithmetic

Addition works just as if it was a normal equality.

If 4 1(mod 3) then 4 + 5 1 + 5 (mod 3)

Multiplication also works.

If 4 1(mod 3) then 8 2(mod 3)

Exponentiation also works (this one well use a lot!).

If 5 2(mod 3) then 5k 2k (mod 3) for any k

Quickfire Examples

?
Properties of Modular Arithmetic
Multiplication also works.

?
Example 2
Example 3