Technology Comparison

Electrochemical Reactions

Lead-acid

PbO2 + Pb + 2H2SO4
2PbSO4 + 2H2O
ACID PARTICIPATES TO ELECTROCHEMICAL REACTION
& LEADS TO SUDDEN DEATH

Nickel-Cadmium

2NiO.OH + Cd + 2H2O
2Ni(OH)2 + Cd (OH)2
ELECTROLYTE IS NEUTRAL

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 VRLA failure modes
Thermal runaway
VRLA batteries:
starved electrolyte
stack compression
often placed in very
confined location
increasing impedance
associated with dry-out

Ni-Cd battery design involves a large quantity of free

electrolyte, that means a large thermal inertia

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 VRLA failure modes
Ripple current
VRLA batteries:
excessive ripple will
increase battery
temperature, shorten life
and accelerates
degradation of the positive
plate

The lifetime of Ni-Cd batteries is unaffected by

ripple currents

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 VRLA failure modes
Storage
VRLA batteries should not
be stored of charge for
more then 6 month

Ni-Cd batteries are not damaged by being left in an

uncharged condition.
Routine freshening charges are not necessary during
storage

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 VRLA failure modes
Corrosion & sudden death

VRLA battery:
corrosion of negative
lugs and straps
positive grid corrosion
corrosion is water loss

The alkaline electrolyte does not react with the steel

supporting structure of Ni-Cd batteries.
There is no corrosion and risk for sudden death

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 VRLA failure modes
Dry out
VRLA batteries dry out by:
grid corrosion
reduced recombination
excessive float current
case transpiration
self discharge

Ni-Cd batteries have a large reserve of free electrolyte,

which is visible through the translucent container.
Water can be added to prevent any risk of dry out

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 VRLA failure modes
Temperature

VRLA batteries:
a 10 years design life at 20oC
is reduced to 5 years at 30oC
lead acid is sensitive for high
temperatures
reduced performance at low
temperatures

Ni-Cd batteries are optimised for excellent performance

at a wide temperature range.

8
 VRLA failure modes
High temperature Ripple current

Storage

Unexpected failure

Sudden death

Thermal runaway
Sulfation
Dry-out
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 VRLA Batteries
Features
No water additions
Good energy density

Disadvantages
Unique failure modes
Dryout
Thermal runaway
Negative strap corrosion
Shorter life expectancy
Additional failure modes
Higher operating temperature
Faster loss of high-rate capability

10
 Lead-Acid Failure Mechanisms
Charge-related
Corrosion
Grid growth
Ripple effects
Sulfation
Discharge-related
Sulfation
Reversal
Passivation
Short circuits

11
 Corrosion & Grid Growth
Most frequent cause of failure in vented cells

Cannot be eliminated

User actions
Avoid undercharging
Realize frequent equalizing

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 Ripple Effects
Can be a problem if there is a large connected load,
High-frequency shallow cycling
Accelerated corrosion
Also results in overcharging
Accelerated grid corrosion
Heating effects in VRLA
User actions
Limit ripple current

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 Sulfation
Buildup of large, hard sulfate crystals
Persistent undercharging
Prolonged storage without refreshing charges
Standing in discharged condition >24 hours
Leads to permanent capacity loss

User actions
Avoid undercharging
Follow recommended storage procedures
Recharge promptly after discharge

14
 Dryout
Often unrecognized, but probably the most prevalent
VRLA failure mode

Probably the major cause of premature capacity loss

Contributing factors
Grid corrosion
Vapor diffusion through plastic container
(if relative humidity <40%)
Loss of plate group compression
(lowered recombination efficiency)

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 Thermal Runaway
Linked to dryout
Battery fires
Explosions
In extreme cases, batteries in thermal runaway can
emit hydrogen sulfide, which will destroy surrounding
electrical equipment

User actions
Use a temperature-compensated charger
Monitor battery temperature, taking immediate action
if temperature rises too high

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Saft. Energy unlimited