Astrophysical Information

AS4100 Astrofisika Pengamatan

Prodi Astronomi 2007/2008
B. Dermawan

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 Introduction (1)
The aim of astrophysics: to describe, to understand and
to predict the physical phenomena that occur in the
Universe
information signals
The aim of observation:
to work out a strategy for collecting this information, and to
order the various variables or physical parameters
measured
to analyze this information in such a way that it is neither
over-interpreted nor wasted
to store if for later investigations, possibly by future
generations
carriers energy 2
 Introduction (2)

Economic commodity: costly to acquire and to

analyse, so decisions must often be made at
the political level or, at least, on the level of
the science research budget

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 Carriers of Information (1)
Observation at a Distance: Electromagnetic Radiation

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Nick Strobels Astronomy
 Carriers of Information (2)
Matter: From Electrons and Nuclei to Meteorites
Cosmic rays Lna et al. 1996

Consist of electrons, atomic

nuclei (proton to heavy nuclei)
Originate in the high-energy
processes (supernova
explosions)
Interact with the galactic Abundances in solar
magnetic field highly system

isotropic spatial distribution

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 Meteorites
Microscopic to a mass of several tons; rain upon the
Earth
The abundance of the various elements at the time
and place where it was produced:
Present (solar wind),
Past (meteorites) of the solar system,
High-energy reactions on the surface of stars
(explosive nucleosynthesis),
The early Universe (helium abundance in cosmic
rays) 6
 Carriers of Information (3)
Neutrino pp pn pn ,
Weak interaction Strong interaction
nn np np ,
n p e e ,
pp pp 0 , np np 0
p n e e

e:electron, e+:positron
n : neutron, p: proton
e:neutrino electron
e: anti neutrino electron
+,,0: pions/pi-mesons
of charge +1,-1,0
+,: muons/mu-mesons
of charge +1,-1,
: neutrino muon
: anti-neutrino muon Lna et al. 1996
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 Carriers of Information (4)
Gravitational Waves
Sources:
Periodic sources (binary stars, pulsars): freq. 10-4
10-1 Hz)
Low-freq impulsive (or burst): the presence of black
holes in massive objects (105 109 M)
Higher freq impulsive (or burst): the gravitational
collapse of 1 10 M stars (during supernova
event; freq. 10 104 Hz)

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 As the black holes, stars, or galaxies orbit each
other, they send out waves of "gravitational
radiation" that reach the Earth
A more massive moving object will produce more
powerful waves, and objects that move very
quickly will produce more waves over a certain
time period

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NASA NASA
 Carriers of Information (5)

Observation in situ
Allows local measurements
To experiment in the same way as a physicist,
a chemist, or a biologist

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 Collecting & Analysing Information
Main Characteristics of Photons
Photon Property
Energy, wavelength, frequency
Number of photons received (flux)
Radiation intensity
Time dependence (t 1/)
Temporal coherence
Time dependence (t >> 1/)
Spatial (angular) dependence
Spin
Observational Strategy
- Spectral coverage
- Transmission through Earths atmosphere
- Choice of appropriate detector
Size of collecting area (telescope)
- Detector sensitivity
- Photometry
- Spectral analysis
- Spectral resolution
- Time resolution
- Rapid photometry (t 1 s)
Mapping, imaging, spatial (angular) resolution
Polarimetry
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 Observing Systems (1)

Lena et al. 1996

The photon flux from the source is collected by a surface A

(aperture) of the detector (generally a mirror: primary mirror)
The photons are collected in a solid angle (field of view, f.o.v)
There may be parasitic sidelobes which take energy from
directions other than the principal direction of observation
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 Observing Systems (2)

Lena et al. 1996

An optical system (a combination of mirrors/lenses)

concentrates the received energy and forms an image in the
image plane or focal plane
The f.o.v is thus decomposed into image elements (pixel),
each one subtended by a solid angle of the source
A device for spectral selection isolates a particular frequency
domain in the incident radiation
Imposed by: the physical characteristics of the optical system,
or the detector itself, or from deliberate filtering of the radiation13
 Observing Systems (3)

Lena et al. 1996

The polarisation of the radiation can be determined by means

of a polarising filter, which selects a particular polarisation
(linear or circular) in the incident radiation
The incident EM signal is transformed by the detector or
receiver into a physical quantity which can be measured and
stored (ex: current, voltage, chemical transformation)
The detector is generally followed by a set of electronic
devices which make up the acquisition system for analysing
and recording the signal 14
 Spectral Coverage
M81: Spiral Galaxy
Ultraviolet Visible Infrared Radio

Emission of hot Stellar emission Dust emission Emission of cold

region region

Saturn

Ultraviolet Visible Infrared Radio

 Measurement of Intensity
The number of photons received per unit time depends on
the collecting area used
The telescope has double function of collecting the radiation
and of forming an image
Thermal and mechanical effects limit the collecting power of
telescopes
The performance of the detector determines both the
precision and the ultimate sensitivity which can be attained
Depends on the technology available and on fundamental
physical limitations
Photometry: the measurement of received radiation intensity,
not relative of reference objects, but in an absolute sense
Require the techniques of absolute calibration
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 Spectral Analysis (1)
Astrophysics is built upon the achievements of
spectroscopy, given the results made possible
using spectral analysis
chemical and isotopic composition, velocity
fields, turbulence, temperature, pressure,
magnetic fields, gravity, etc
The spectral resolving power (/): its ability to
independently measure two emissions of distinct
frequency
depend on the spectrograph, the collecting
area, the measurement time, and the sensitivity
of the detectors
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Spectral
Analysis
(2)
Lena et al. 1996

Rapid spectroscopy and photometry (< 1 ms)

Solar flares, eruptive variable stars, accretion phenomena,
X-ray sources
Spectroscopy and Imaging (images at different wavelengths
are obtained simultaneously)
Spectroheliogram, X-ray mapping of solar corona, maps of
the hydrogen velocity distribution in a galaxy (the 21 cm line)
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 Time Variability
Variable stars
slow: Mira Ceti (ancient times)
rapid: Pulsar, of period 1.377 ms
(1968)
Sensitivity
1959

1989

1979
Lena et al. 1996
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 Imaging
To distinguish between rays coming from different directions in
space
The capacity of a given observation device to do this: spatial
resolving power angular resolution (the size of the
instrument, the wavelength of the radiation, the effects of
atmospheric turbulence)
Resolution Number of pixels Information available on this scale Spectral region
to cover 4 sr (1985)
1 4104 Background radiation chart millimeter
Sky survey -ray
1 1.5108 Sky survey IR (10-100 m)
1 5.41011 Sky survey Visible
Specific objects (restricted fields) mm, IR, UV, X-ray
0.01 5.41015 Specific objects IR, visible
10-3 5.41017 Specific objects Radio [cm]
10-6 5.41021 Specific objects Radio [cm,mm]20
 Polarisation
Usually very characteristic both of the physical conditions:
Its emission: scattering, presence of magnetic fields,
bremsstrahlung
Physical condition on its path: the presence of a macroscopically
oriented anisotropic medium (interstellar grains)

Space-Time Reference Frames

Essential to:
Refer astronomical events (able to use correctly the information
transported by photons)
Know the location of objects in some well-defined spatial frame
The FK5 catalogue: global accuracy of 0.02 (stellar positions),
an accuracy of 1.5 x 10-3 /yr (stellar proper motions) 21
 Processing and Storage of Information

Astrophysical information data gathered across the

whole range of observed sources
Always being susceptible to improvement as regards
accuracy
Has great historical value (any variation in the course of
time)
The increase in volume of data gathered is enormous
Around 107 stars has been catalogued (position, magnitude,
color)
1990s 1010 to 1013 bits per year
Acquisition and treatment of astronomical information
Source signal
Malasan, priv. com.
Observing Raw data
system Data archive

Preliminary reduction

Commands,
optimization Quick-look data

Images, spectra
Interactive analysis Data
Publication Images,spectra bank

Statistical
analysis, Full analysis
modelling
 Stages in the Processing of Astronomical Data &
the Role Played by Computer Systems (1)
The acquisition of information in real time
The so-called quick look optimises an observation
The rate of acquisition can vary widely: from the detection of individual
photons from a weak source (1 or 2 per hr or per day), to the production
of instantaneous images using the speckle interferometry in the visible
(108 109 bits per sec)
Real-time data handling (data compression and filtering): reducing the
volume of the raw data and facilitating permanent storage
Subsequent analysis is generally interactive (scientist-computer-data)
Selection of the best data, optimal filtering of noise, various corrections for
properties of observing systems (variations in sensitivity, atmospheric effects,
pointing drift, etc), calibration by comparison with the standard sources
A set of algorithm for thematic extraction and analysis of information, a set of
programs (calibration programs), viewing programs to simplify the interface
between calculation tools and the user
 Stages in the Processing of Astronomical Data &
the Role Played by Computer Systems (2)

Processed data includes error estimates

The signal-to-noise (S/N) ratio
Can be relayed to the scientific community
Publication
As a part of data bank (standardising)
The detailed treatment
A large volume of data or properties of sources is extracted
from the data bank to be handled by powerful machines
(statistical features, sophisticated physical modelling)

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 Strategies and Costs (1)
Astronomical research programs are financed by
public funding or (private) foundations
Choices have to be made to determine priorities in
the research budget of a country
Research activities require personnel in a wide range
of skills and know-how (researchers, engineers,
technicians, administrators)
The ratio of supporting staff to researchers: 1 or 2 in
lab., 10 in operational observatory

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 The financing of astronomical research
France Europe United States
GDP 1320 G$ (1992) 7504 G$ (1992) 5920 G$ (1992)
Gross Domestic 25 G$ (1991): 49% 116 G$ (1991) 154 G$ (1991)
Spending on RD public funding, 42.5%
industry
Civilian RD budget 7.8 G$ (1992) 28 G$ (1992)
Civilian space science 110 M$ (1992) 290 M$ (1992) (ESA) 14 G$ (1992)
funds (all disciplines)
Astronomy:
Equipment Ground 47.3 M$ (1992) Ground 112 M$ (1992)
Operation Space 62.3 M$ (1992) Space 1427 M$ (1992)
Personnel 730 researchers, 1440 4200 researchers with
engineers & PhD (1992)
technicians, 220
postdoc & doctoral
Very large scale 329.1 M$ (1992)
scientific projects
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 Strategies and Costs (2)
Observational astrophysics requires:
Observing apparatus, telescopes, on the ground or in space
Space probes, exploring solar system in situ and sometimes bringing
samples back to Earth
Sophisticated instrumentation working in relation with these telescopes and
probes (cameras, detectors, spectrographs)
The means of processing the data (computers, data bases)

Various tools require a whole range of technology, including optoelectronics,

mechanics, robotics, system theory, AI, etc.

Theoretical astrophysics uses:

Tools of mathematics, physics, chemistry
Large-scale numerical calculation (computers of the highest level of
performance in speed and storage capacity)
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 Strategies and Costs (3)
The cost per unit of equipment and projects rise steadily with
increasing size and complexity
The cost of traditional ground-based optical telescopes (1980):
0.45 D2.6 M$
Keck telescope (1995): 100 M$
The cost of radio telescopes (1980): 3.8 x 10-2 D2.6 M$
The cost of space missions are an order of magnitude larger
HST (1995): 4 G$
ESA (1995): minor missions (215 M$), major missions (645 M$),
missions for exploration and/or return of samples (1-2 G$)

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 Strategies and Costs (4)
The progress in productivity has been spectacular
Factors contributing to a higher yield of information per hour
from the instruments used: a careful choice of sites or orbits,
improvements in detectors, better analysis of available
photons, optimised image processing, expert systems
improving real-time decision capability, optimising the use of
available observation time
There still does not exist any reasonably sure way of
quantifying the yield in terms of discovery of a research
instrument; neither volume of publications, nor the number
of citations of those publications, would be sufficient in
themselves for this purpose
Unable to evaluate the intrinsic worth of a discovery or an
observation
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