Connective tissue & skin

Dr.R.Arulmoli
 Learning outcome

Describe the histological structure, types, and

function of connective tissue.
Describe the microscopic anatomy of skin and its
appendages.
 Types of tissue

Tissues are classified into four primary types:

Epithelial tissue
Connective tissue
Muscular tissue
Nervous tissue
 Connective tissue
One of the basic type of tissue composed of cells and
extra cellular matrix.

The extra cellular matrix consisting of ground substance

and fibers.

Fibroblasts are the most important components of loose

connective tissue, which produce and maintain the fibers
and ground substance composing the extra cellular
matrix.
 Functions of connective tissue

1. Providing structural support - cartilage and ligaments

holding the bones together as well as the tendons
attaching muscles to bone act as support.
2. Compartmentalization-divides the structure into
compartments.
3. Serving as a medium for exchange of metabolic
waste,nutrients and oxygen between the blood and cells
of the body.
4. Defence and protection of the body- phagocytic cells,
which engulf and destroy foreign particles,
microorganisms and immunocompetent cells, produce
antibodies against antigens
5. Storage of fat.
 Classification

Connective tissue proper

Blood
Cartilage
Bone
 CONNECTIVE TISSUE

CONNECTIVE
TISSUE PROPER
CARTILAGE BONE BLOOD

Loose Hyaline Elastic

Compact
Spongy
Fibrocartilage
Areolar
Reticular

Dense
Adipose

Regular
Elastic
Irregular
Connective tissue proper - structure

One of the basic type of tissue composed of

cells and extra cellular matrix.
 Extra cellular matrix

The extra cellular matrix, composed of ground substance

and fibers.
Ground substance is amorphous gel like material
composed of glycosamino-glycans, proteoglycans and
glycoproteins.
 Fibers

The fibers present in the extra cellular matrix

provide tensile strength and elasticity.
There are three types of fibers
1. Collagen
2. Elastic
3. Reticular
 Collagen fibers

Collagen fibers are inelastic and

posses great tensile strength.
Each fiber is composed of fine
subunits, the tropocollagen
molecule composed of three
alpha chain wrapped around
one another in a helical
configuration.
At least 15 different types of
collagen fibers are known.
 Collagen fibers
Type I - in connective tissue proper, bone, dentin and
cementum.

Type II - in hyaline and elastic cartilage.

Type III - reticular fibers.

Type IV - basal lamina.

Type V - associated with type I collagen and in the

placenta.

Type VII - forms the anchoring fibrils of some basement

membrane.
 How to rebuild collagen
Collagen production decreases by 1
percent with each year of age after the
age of 21, leading to a loss in firmness
and elasticity of skin. So whats an age-
conscious woman to do? Here are
some options:
Lasers are used to stimulate skin to
make new collagen.
2. Facial light therapy - phototherapy
repairs sun damage and increases
collagen and elastin production.
3. Retinoid treatments-retinoic acid
prevents the loss of collagen synthesis.
4. Topical vitamin C treatments-vitamin
C triggers collagen production and
thereby increasing skin firmness.

To prevent future collagen loss:

Wear sunscreen everyday and limit UV
exposure. Eat and topically apply lots
of antioxidants,
 Elastic fibers

Elastic fibers are composed of

elastin and micro fibrils.
Highly elastic and may be
stretched to 150% of their
resting length with out breaking
Elasticity is due to the
presence of protein elastin and
their stability is due to the
presence of microfibrils.
 Reticular fibers

These are a variety of collagen

fiber (type III). They differ from
the typical collagen fibers.
They are much thinner.
They form a net work by
branching (or reticulum) and by
anastomosing with each other.
They do not run in bundles.
Fibers
 Cellular components

Two types:

Fixed cells.

Wandering cells or Free cells.

 Fixed cells & wandering cells

Fixed cells are a stable and Wandering cells include

long lived population which
include
1. Fibroblast 1.Plasma cells
2. Pericytes 2.Lymphocytes
3. Adipose cells 3.Neutrophils
4. Mast cells 4.Basophils
5. Macrophages 5.Monocytes
Connective tissue cells
 Fibroblast
Fibroblasts are spindle shaped
cells seen in tissue sections.
Nucleus is ovoid ,large and
well defined nucleolus.
When seen from surface the
cells show branching process.
They synthesize extra cellular
matrix of connective tissue,
collagen fiber, reticular fiber
and elastic fiber.
 Pericytes

Pericytes derived from

undifferentiated
mesenchymal cells, partly
surrounds the endothelial
cells of capillaries and small
venules.
 Adipose cells

Fat cells or adipocytes,

also are derived from
undifferentiated
mesenchymal cells.
Aggregations of fat
cells constitute adipose
tissue.
 Mast cells

Mast cells arise from

the bone marrow stem
cells and function in
mediating inflammatory
process and immediate
hyper sensitivity
reactions.
Mast cells have
numerous granules in
the cytoplasm,contain
heparin and histamine.
 Macrophages
Macrophages belongs to
mononuclear phagocytic
system.
Function - Macrophages
phagocytose foreign
substances and damaged
tissues, as well as cellular
debris.
They also assist in the
initiation of immune
response.
 Wandering cells- Plasma cells

Plasma cells are large and ovoid

cells eccentrically placed nucleus
with a short life span of 2 -3 weeks.
Plasma cells are derived from B
lymphocytes that have interacted
with the antigen, produce and
secrete antibodies.
They are present in great numbers
in areas of chronic inflammation
where foreign substances or
microorganisms entered.
 Wandering cells-white blood cells

Leukocytes are white blood cells that circulate

in the blood stream.
They migrate through the capillary walls to
enter the connective tissues especially during
inflammation .
 Monocytes

Monocytes develop in the

bone marrow and circulate
in the blood.
At the proper signal they
leave the blood stream by
migrating through the
endothelium of capillaries
or venules.
In connective tissue
compartment they mature
into macrophages.
 Neutrophils

Neutrophils -
Phagocytose and
digest bacteria in
areas of acute
inflammation,resulti
ng in the formation
of pus, which is
accumulation of
dead neutophils
and debris.
 Eosinophils
Eosinophils like
neutrophils are attracted
to the areas of
inflammation.
Combat parasites by
releasing cytokines.
They are also attracted to
the site of allergic
inflammation, where they
moderate allergic reaction
and phagocytose
anibody-antigen complex.
 Basophils

Basophils :(similar to
mast cells) release
preformed and newly
synthesized
pharmacological
agents that
initiate,
maintain, and
control the
inflammatory process.
 Lymphocytes

Lymphocytes are
present only in small
numbers in most
connective tissue
except at the site of
chronic inflammation,
where they are
abundant.
 Classification of connective tissue proper

Connective tissue proper is classified into-

1. Loose connective (areolar) tissue,
2. Dense connective tissue,
3. Reticular connective tissue,
4. Adipose tissue.
 Loose areolar connective tissue

Loose connective tissue also known as areolar

connective tissue.
Composed of
loose arrangement of fibers,
dispersed cells,
embedded in a gel-like ground substance.

Less fibres and more cells.

 Loose areolar connective tissue-400X

collagen

nuclei of cells

elastin
abundant ground substance
 Loose areolar connective tissue-400X

collagen

nuclei of cells

elastin
abundant ground substance
 Loose connective tissue
Present just deep to the skin (superficial fascia).
Adventitia of the blood vessels, parenchyma of
glands.
In the lamina propria of mucous membrane.
 Dense connective tissue

Dense connective tissue contains a greater amount of

fibers and fewer cells than loose connective tissue.
When the collagen fiber bundles are arranged randomly,
the tissue is called dense irregular connective tissue.
When fiber bundle of tissue is arranged in parallel or
organized fashion the tissue is called dense regular
connective tissue.

More fibres and less cells.

 Dense irregular connective tissue

Seen in dermis of the skin.

Fibers, cells and arrangement of fibers are like those in
loose connective. But are modified to conform to areas
where more firm support is required.
Collagen fibers are large, typically in thick bundles, their
arrangement is very compact. Thin wavy elastic fibers
form net work.
Fibroblasts, undifferentiated mesenchymal cells
neutrophils and lymphocytes and a few cells of
circulating blood are seen.
Dense irregular connective tissue
 Dense regular connective tissue

Seen in ligaments and

tendons.
Collagen fibers are
arranged in compact
parallel bundles.
Between the bundles thin
partitions of loose
connective tissue in
which are rows of fibroblast cell nuclei
modified fibroblasts are
present.
Dense regular elastic connective tissue

Branching elastic fibers with only a few collagen fibers.

Elastic fibers are arranged parallel to one another.
Scattered through out the interstitial spaces are
fibroblasts.
Seen in ligamenta flava of the vertebral column, the
suspensory ligament of penis.
 Reticular connective tissue
Seen in lymph node, spleen.
Reticular fibres are seen.
Reticular Connective Tissue 1000X

reticular fibers

spleen
 Adipose connective tissue

Adipose tissue is an aggregation of fat cells.

Fat cells show fatty droplet filling its cytoplasm
with nucleus pushed towards periphery.
Fat cells are supported by reticular fibres.
Adipose tissue shows numerous blood vessels.
Adipose Connective Tissue400X

nucleus

cell membrane
 Summary:
Connective tissue

Components of connective tissue are ground

substance, cells & fibres.
Types depending on the composition and
arrangement of fibres:
1. Loose areolar connective tissue
2. Dense connective tissue
?
?
?
?
Ehlers-Danlos syndrome:
Features include joint hypermobility (loose joints),
skin that stretches easily (skin hyperelasticity or
laxity), and weakness of tissues.
Marfan syndrome:
The connective tissue is defective.
Skin and Appendages
 Skin - Types

2 types :
1.Thick skin seen in palm & sole.
2. Thin skin seen in other parts of the body.
 Skin
Superficial layer - Epidermis - made of
stratified squamous keratinised epithelium.
Deeper layer - Dermis - made of dense
iregular connective tissue.
Deeper to these 2 layers - subcutaneous
tissue or hypodermis.

Junction between these 2 layers is not straight

but wavy because of finger like upward
projection of dermis into epidermis dermal
papilla and finger like downward projection of
epidermis into dermis epidermal papillae.

Elevations and depressions on the surface of

epidermis- called the epidermal
ridges,responsible for formation on finger
prints.
 Skin
Epidermal ridges

Epidermis
Dermal Papilla

Epidermal papilla

Dermis
 Epidermis

5 layers:

1.Stratum basale or basal

layer or germinal layer or
stratum germinativum.
2. Stratum spinosum or
Malpighian layer.
3. Stratum granulosum.
4. Stratum lucidum.
5. Stratum corneum.
Stratum corneum
Stratum lucidum
Stratum Granulosum

Stratum spinosum

Stratum basale
 Epidermis - Layers

1.Stratum basale or
basal layer or germinal
layer or stratum
germinativum:

Made of single layer of

columnar cells, which rests on
a basal lamina.
Contains stem cells which
undergoes mitosis to produce
Keratinocytes.
 Epidermis - Layers

2. Stratum spinosum or
Malpighian layer:
Several layers of polygonal
keratinocytes. Cells attached to
each other by desmosomes.
Cytoplasm shows fibrils (made of
keratin filaments)- these fibrils are
attached to the wall of the
desmosomes.
Cells retract while taking a
section except at desmosomes. As
a result the cells appears to have
spines: so this layer gets the name
spinosum.
 Epidermis - Layers

3. Stratum granulosum:
1-5 layers of flat cells with
granular cytoplasm consist
of keratohyalin and keratin
filaments.
 Epidermis - Layers

4.Stratum Lucidum:

Lucid clear layer

because
homogenous, cell
boundaries are not
seen.
Few nuclei seen.
 Epidermis - Layers

5.Stratum corneum:
Most superficial layer, acellular
flat scale like elements (squames)
containing keratin filaments.

Thickest where skin is exposed to

maximum friction.

Superficial layer is shed off and

replaced by cells from the deeper
layer.
 Dermis
Made of dense irregular connective tissue seen below the epidermis.
- 2 layers
1. Papillary layer: layer just below epidermis has connective tissue.
2. Reticular layer:layer deep to papillary layer bundles of collagen fibers
and elastic fibers.
 Appendages of the skin

Hair

Sebaceous gland

Sweat gland

Arector pilae muscle

Nail
 Hair

Present in thin skin covering the

body and certain parts of male
and female external genitalia.

Not seen in thick skin - soles,

palms.

In animals more hair to keep

the animal warm.

In humans less hair to make it

effective sensory surface.
 Sebaceous gland

Holocrine gland seen relation to the hair

follicle.

Sometimes seen independently of hair

follicles directly open into the skin surface- lips,
some parts of male and female external
genitalia.

Has numerous alveoli connected to broad

duct which opens into the hair follicle.

Alveoli - Outer layer of cells are small and lie

on a basement membrane.Inner layer of cells
large, rounded filled with lipids.

Sebaceous glands secrete sebum,oily

substance which keeps the skin moist.
 Sebaceous cyst-
Occurs due to blocked
sebaceous glands.

Acne vulgaris-Pimple:
Due to blocked excess secretion of
sebaceous glands occurs during puberty
due to hormonal change.
 Sweat gland
Exocrine gland,excretes sweat.
Seen in both thick and thin skin.
Parts:
1. Highly coiled body made of secretory part lies in the reticular
layer of dermis.
2. The duct traverses the dermis,epidermis to open on the
surface.
 Breast - Mammary Gland

Breast - Modified sweat gland seen in both sexes,

rudimentary in males.
In female, well developed after puberty.
 Thick skin Thin skin

Present in palm and sole Present in other parts of

body except palm and sole

Epidermis is thick and all the Epidermis is thin and

5 layers are seen clearly. lucidum is not seen clearly

Dermis shows only sweat Dermis contains sweat

glands glands,hair follicle,
sebaceous glands and
arector pili muscle (smooth
muscle)
Summary:Skin