Chapter 1

Introduction

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Introduction 1-1
Part 1: Roadmap

1.1 What is the Internet?

1.2 Internet structure: ISPs, access
1.3 Layering
1.4 Basic concepts and definitions
1.5 Delay & loss in packet-switched networks
1.6 History
1.7 Physical media

Introduction 1-2
Whats the Internet: nuts and bolts view
router
workstation
server
mobile
local ISP

regional ISP

company
network

Introduction 1-3
Part 1: Roadmap

1.1 What is the Internet?

1.2 Internet structure: ISPs, access
1.3 Layering
1.4 Basic concepts and definitions
1.5 Delay & loss in packet-switched networks
1.6 History
1.7 Physical media

Introduction 1-4
 Internet structure: network of networks

roughly hierarchical
at center: tier-1 ISPs (e.g., MCI, Sprint, AT&T, Cable
and Wireless), national/international coverage
treat each other as equals

Tier-1 providers
also interconnect
Tier-1 at public network
providers
Tier 1 ISP
NAP access points
interconnect (NAPs)
(peer)
privately
Tier 1 ISP Tier 1 ISP

Introduction 1-5
Tier-1 ISP: Eg. Sprint

Sprint US backbone network

DS3 (45 Mbps)
OC3 (155 Mbps)
OC12 (622 Mbps)
OC48 (2.4 Gbps)
Seattle
Tacoma
POP: point-of-presence

to/from backbone
New York
Stockton Cheyenne Chicago
peering Pennsauken

San Jose
Relay
Wash. DC
Roachdale
Kansas City
.
Anaheim

Atlanta
to/from customers
Fort Worth

Orlando
Introduction 1-6
 Internet structure: network of networks

Tier-2 ISPs: smaller (often regional) ISPs

Connect to one or more tier-1 ISPs, possibly other tier-2 ISPs

Tier-2 ISPs
Tier-2 ISP pays Tier-2 ISP also peer
Tier-2 ISP privately with
tier-1 ISP for
connectivity to Tier 1 ISP each other,
rest of Internet NAP interconnect
tier-2 ISP is
at NAP
customer of
tier-1 provider Tier 1 ISP Tier 1 ISP Tier-2 ISP

Tier-2 ISP Tier-2 ISP

Introduction 1-7
 Internet structure: network of networks

Tier-3 ISPs and local ISPs

last hop (access) network (closest to end systems)

local
ISP Tier 3 local
local local
ISP ISP
ISP ISP
Local and tier- Tier-2 ISP Tier-2 ISP
3 ISPs are
customers of Tier 1 ISP
higher tier NAP
ISPs
connecting
them to rest
Tier 1 ISP Tier 1 ISP Tier-2 ISP
of Internet
local
Tier-2 ISP Tier-2 ISP
ISP
local local local
ISP ISP ISP Introduction 1-8
 Internet structure: network of networks

a packet passes through many networks!

local
ISP Tier 3 local
local local
ISP ISP
ISP ISP
Tier-2 ISP Tier-2 ISP

Tier 1 ISP
NAP

Tier 1 ISP Tier 1 ISP Tier-2 ISP

local
Tier-2 ISP Tier-2 ISP
ISP
local local local
ISP ISP ISP Introduction 1-9
Access networks
Q: How to connect end
systems to edge router?
residential access nets
institutional access
networks (school,
company)
mobile access networks

Introduction 1-10
Residential access: point to point access

Dialup via modem

up to 56Kbps direct access to
router (often less)
Cant surf and phone at same
time: cant be always on
ADSL: asymmetric digital subscriber line
up to 1 Mbps upstream (today typically < 256 kbps)
up to 8 Mbps downstream (today typically < 1 Mbps)
FDM: 50 kHz - 1 MHz for downstream
4 kHz - 50 kHz for upstream
0 kHz - 4 kHz for ordinary telephone
Introduction 1-11
Residential access: cable modems
broadcast channel

HFC: hybrid fiber coax

asymmetric: up to 30Mbps downstream, 2
Mbps upstream
network of cable and fiber attaches homes to
ISP router
homes share access to router
Single cable runs to multiple homes
deployment: available via cable TV companies

Introduction 1-12
Company access: local area networks
company/univ local area
network (LAN) connects
end system to edge router
Ethernet:
shared or dedicated link
connects end system
and router
10 Mbs, 100Mbps,
Gigabit Ethernet
LANs: chapter 5

Introduction 1-13
Wireless access networks
shared wireless access
network connects end system
to router router
via base station aka access
point base
wireless LANs: station
802.11b/g (WiFi): 11 or 54 Mbps

wider-area wireless access

provided by telco operator
3G ~ 384 kbps
mobile
GPRS in Europe/US
hosts

Introduction 1-14
Home networks
Typical home network components:
ADSL or cable modem
router/firewall/NAT
Ethernet
wireless access
point
wireless
to/from laptops
cable switch
cable
modem
headend
wireless
access
Ethernet point

Introduction 1-15
Part 1: Roadmap

1.1 What is the Internet?

1.2 Internet structure: ISPs, access
1.3 Layering
1.4 Basic concepts and definitions
1.5 Delay & loss in packet-switched networks
1.6 History
1.7 Physical media

Introduction 1-16
Protocol Layers
Networks are complex!
many pieces:
hosts
Question:
routers
Is there any hope of
organizing structure of
links of various
network?
media
applications
Or at least our discussion
protocols
of networks?
hardware,
software

Introduction 1-17
Internet protocol stack
application: supporting network
applications: FTP, SMTP, HTTP
transport: process-process data transfer: application
TCP, UDP
End-to-end reliable communication transport
Congestion and flow control
network: routing of datagrams from source network
to destination: IP, ICMP, routing
Thin waist of the Internet link
link: data transfer between neighboring
network elements: Ethernet physical
Bit errors, channel contention and MAC
physical: bits on the wire
Modulation and encoding

Introduction 1-18
How layering works
Service models of
layers
Higher layers use
services provided by
their lower layers
Substitutability of
layers

Problems with layering

Duplication of
functionality
Cross-layering to
access information

Introduction 1-19
 source
Encapsulation
message M application
segment Ht M transport
datagram Hn Ht M network
frame Hl Hn Ht M link
physical
link
physical

switch

destination Hn Ht M network
M application Hl Hn Ht M link Hn Ht M
Ht M transport physical
Hn Ht M network
Hl Hn Ht M link router
physical

Introduction 1-20
Why layering?
Dealing with complex systems:
explicit structure allows identification,
relationship of complex systems pieces
layered reference model for discussion
modularization eases maintenance, updating of
system
change of implementation of layers service
transparent to rest of system
e.g., change in routing algorithm doesnt affect
rest of system
layering considered harmful?

Introduction 1-21
Part 1: Roadmap

1.1 What is the Internet?

1.2 Internet structure: ISPs, access
1.3 Layering
1.4 Basic concepts and definitions
1.5 Delay & loss in packet-switched networks
1.6 History
1.7 Physical media

Introduction 1-22
Whats the Internet: An infrastructure view
communication infrastructure enables distributed
applications:
Web, email, games, e-commerce, file sharing
communication services provided to apps:
Connectionless unreliable
connection-oriented reliable

Introduction 1-23
Connection-oriented service
Goal: data transfer
between end systems
handshaking: setup
(prepare for) data
transfer ahead of time
Hello, hello back human
protocol
set up state in two
communicating hosts
TCP - Transmission
Control Protocol
Internets connection-
oriented service
TCP service [RFC 793]
reliable, in-order byte-
stream data transfer
loss: acknowledgements
and retransmissions
flow control:
sender wont overwhelm
receiver
congestion control:
senders slow down sending
rate when network
congested
Introduction 1-24
Connectionless service

Goal: data transfer Apps using TCP:

between end systems HTTP (Web), FTP (file
same as before! transfer), Telnet
UDP - User Datagram (remote login), SMTP
Protocol [RFC 768]: (email)
connectionless
unreliable data Apps using UDP:
transfer streaming media,
no flow control teleconferencing, DNS,
no congestion control Internet telephony

Introduction 1-25
Why it works: Protocols
human protocols: network protocols:
whats the time? machines rather than
I have a question humans
introductions all communication
activity in Internet
specific msgs sent governed by protocols
specific actions taken protocols define format,
when msgs received, order of msgs sent and
or other events received among network
entities, and actions
taken on msg
transmission, receipt
Introduction 1-26
Whats a protocol?
a human protocol and a computer network protocol:

Hi
TCP connection
request
Hi
TCP connection
Got the response
time? Get http://www.awl.com/kurose-ross
2:00
<file>
time

Q: Other human protocols?

Introduction 1-27
Standardizing protocols
Internet standards
RFC: Request for comments
IETF: Internet Engineering Task Force

Introduction 1-28
Circuit-switching and Packet-switching

mesh of interconnected
routers
the fundamental
question: how is data
transferred through net?
circuit switching:
dedicated circuit per
call: telephone net
packet-switching: data
sent thru net in
discrete chunks

Introduction 1-29
Circuit switching

End-end resources
reserved for call
link bandwidth, switch
capacity
dedicated resources:
no sharing
circuit-like
(guaranteed)
performance
call setup required

Introduction 1-30
Circuit switching
network resources dividing link bandwidth
(e.g., bandwidth) into pieces
divided into pieces frequency division
pieces allocated to calls time division
resource piece idle if
not used by owning call
(no sharing)

Introduction 1-31
Circuit switching: FDM and TDM
Example:
FDM
4 users

frequency

time
TDM

frequency

time
Introduction 1-32
Circuit switching: Numerical example

How long does it take to send a file of

640,000 bits from host A to host B over a
circuit-switched network?
All links are 1.536 Mbps
Each link uses TDM with 24 slots/sec
500 msec to establish end-to-end circuit

Introduction 1-33
Packet switching
each end-end data stream
divided into packets
user A, B packets share
network resources
each packet uses full link
bandwidth
resources used as needed
Bandwidth division into pieces
Dedicated allocation
Resource reservation
resource contention:
aggregate resource
demand can exceed
amount available
congestion: packets
queue, wait for link use
store and forward:
packets move one hop
at a time
Node receives complete
packet before forwarding
Introduction 1-34
Packet switching: Statistical multiplexing
100 Mb/s
A Ethernet statistical multiplexing C

1.5 Mb/s
B
queue of packets
waiting for output
link

D E

Sequence of A & B packets does not have fixed pattern,

shared on demand statistical multiplexing.

Introduction 1-35
Packet switching: Store and forward
L
R R R

Takes L/R seconds to Example:

transmit (push out) L = 7.5 Mbits
packet of L bits on to R = 1.5 Mbps
link or R bps
delay = 15 sec
Entire packet must
arrive at router before
it can be transmitted
on next link: store and
forward
delay = 3L/R (assuming more on delay shortly
zero propagation delay)
Introduction 1-36
Packet switching versus circuit switching
Packet switching allows more users to use network!
1 Mb/s link
each user:
100 kb/s when active
active 10% of time

N users
circuit-switching: 1 Mbps link
10 users

packet switching:
with 35 users,
Q: how did we get value 0.0004?
probability > 10 active
less than .0004

Introduction 1-37
Packet switching versus circuit switching
Is packet switching a slam dunk winner?

Great for bursty data

resource sharing
simpler, no call setup
Excessive congestion: packet delay and loss
protocols needed for reliable data transfer,
congestion control
Q: How to provide circuit-like behavior?
bandwidth guarantees needed for audio/video apps
still an unsolved problem (chapter 7)

Introduction 1-38
Part 1: Roadmap

1.1 What is the Internet?

1.2 Internet structure: ISPs, access
1.3 Layering
1.4 Basic concepts and definitions
1.5 Delay & loss in packet-switched networks
1.6 History
1.7 Physical media

Introduction 1-39
How do loss and delay occur
packets queue in router buffers
packet arrival rate to link exceeds output link capacity
packets queue, wait for turn

packet being transmitted (delay)

B
packets queueing (delay)
free (available) buffers: arriving packets
dropped (loss) if no free buffers
Introduction 1-40
Four sources of packet delay

1. nodal processing: 2. queueing

check bit errors time waiting at output
determine output link link for transmission
depends on congestion
level of router

transmission
A propagation

B
nodal
processing queueing

Introduction 1-41
Delay in packet-switched networks
3. Transmission delay: 4. Propagation delay:
R=link bandwidth (bps) d = length of physical link
L=packet length (bits) s = propagation speed in
time to send bits into medium (~2x108 m/sec)
link = L/R propagation delay = d/s

Note: s and R are very

different quantities!
transmission
A propagation

B
nodal
processing queueing
Introduction 1-42
Nodal delay

d nodal d proc d queue d trans d prop

dproc = processing delay

typically a few microsecs or less

dqueue = queuing delay

depends on congestion

dtrans = transmission delay

= L/R, significant for low-speed links

dprop = propagation delay

a few microsecs to hundreds of msecs

Introduction 1-43
Real Internet delays and routes

What do real Internet delay & loss look like?

Traceroute program: Provides delay measurement
from source to router along end-to-end Internet
path towards destination. For all i:
Sends three packets that will reach router i on path
towards destination
Router i will return packets to sender
Sender times interval between transmission and reply

3 probes 3 probes

3 probes

Introduction 1-44
Real Internet delays and routes
traceroute: gaia.cs.umass.edu to www.eurecom.fr
Three delay measurements from
gaia.cs.umass.edu to cs-gw.cs.umass.edu
1 cs-gw (128.119.240.254) 1 ms 1 ms 2 ms
2 border1-rt-fa5-1-0.gw.umass.edu (128.119.3.145) 1 ms 1 ms 2 ms
3 cht-vbns.gw.umass.edu (128.119.3.130) 6 ms 5 ms 5 ms
4 jn1-at1-0-0-19.wor.vbns.net (204.147.132.129) 16 ms 11 ms 13 ms
5 jn1-so7-0-0-0.wae.vbns.net (204.147.136.136) 21 ms 18 ms 18 ms
6 abilene-vbns.abilene.ucaid.edu (198.32.11.9) 22 ms 18 ms 22 ms
7 nycm-wash.abilene.ucaid.edu (198.32.8.46) 22 ms 22 ms 22 ms trans-oceanic
link
8 62.40.103.253 (62.40.103.253) 104 ms 109 ms 106 ms
9 de2-1.de1.de.geant.net (62.40.96.129) 109 ms 102 ms 104 ms
10 de.fr1.fr.geant.net (62.40.96.50) 113 ms 121 ms 114 ms
11 renater-gw.fr1.fr.geant.net (62.40.103.54) 112 ms 114 ms 112 ms
12 nio-n2.cssi.renater.fr (193.51.206.13) 111 ms 114 ms 116 ms
13 nice.cssi.renater.fr (195.220.98.102) 123 ms 125 ms 124 ms
14 r3t2-nice.cssi.renater.fr (195.220.98.110) 126 ms 126 ms 124 ms
15 eurecom-valbonne.r3t2.ft.net (193.48.50.54) 135 ms 128 ms 133 ms
16 194.214.211.25 (194.214.211.25) 126 ms 128 ms 126 ms
17 * * *
18 * * * * means no response (probe lost, router not replying)
19 fantasia.eurecom.fr (193.55.113.142) 132 ms 128 ms 136 ms

Introduction 1-45
Packet loss

queue (aka buffer) preceding link in buffer

has finite capacity
when packet arrives to full queue, packet is
dropped (aka lost)
lost packet may be retransmitted by
previous node, by source end system, or
not retransmitted at all

Introduction 1-46
Part 1: Roadmap

1.1 What is the Internet?

1.2 Internet structure: ISPs, access
1.3 Layering
1.4 Basic concepts and definitions
1.5 Delay & loss in packet-switched networks
1.6 History
1.7 Physical media

Introduction 1-47
Telephone network

Phone number is a program to establish a path, but takes too long

Introduction 1-48
Packet switching avoids path establishment

Introduction 1-49
Overlay on the phone network. Focusing on
endpoints renders the network independent of
the underlying connectivity

Introduction 1-50
Introduction 1-51
Introduction 1-52
Internet History
1961-1972: Early packet-switching principles

1961: Kleinrock - queueing 1972:

theory shows ARPAnet public demonstration
effectiveness of packet-
NCP (Network Control Protocol)
switching
first host-host protocol
1964: Baran - packet-
first e-mail program
switching in military nets
ARPAnet has 15 nodes
1967: ARPAnet conceived
by Advanced Research
Projects Agency
1969: first ARPAnet node
operational

Introduction 1-53
 Internet History
1972-1980: Internetworking, new and proprietary nets
1970: ALOHAnet satellite Cerf and Kahns internetworking
network in Hawaii principles:
1974: Cerf and Kahn - minimalism, autonomy - no
architecture for internal changes required
interconnecting networks to interconnect networks
1976: Ethernet at Xerox best effort service model
PARC stateless routers

late70s: proprietary decentralized control

architectures: DECnet, SNA, define todays Internet

XNA architecture
late 70s: switching fixed
length packets (ATM
precursor)
1979: ARPAnet has 200 nodes

Introduction 1-54
Internet History
1980-1990: new protocols, a proliferation of networks

1983: deployment of new national networks:

TCP/IP Csnet, BITnet,
1982: smtp e-mail NSFnet, Minitel
protocol defined 100,000 hosts
1983: DNS defined connected to
for name-to-IP- confederation of
address translation networks
1985: ftp protocol
defined
1988: TCP congestion
control
Introduction 1-55
Internet History
1990, 2000s: commercialization, the Web, new apps

Early 1990s: ARPAnet Late 1990s 2000s:

decommissioned
more killer apps: instant
1991: NSF lifts restrictions on messaging, P2P file sharing
commercial use of NSFnet
network security to
(decommissioned, 1995)
forefront
early 1990s: Web
est. 50 million host, 100
hypertext [Bush 1945, Nelson million+ users
1960s]
backbone links running at
HTML, HTTP: Berners-Lee Gbps
1994: Mosaic, later Netscape
late 1990s:
commercialization of the Web

Introduction 1-56
Part 1: Roadmap

1.1 What is the Internet?

1.2 Internet structure: ISPs, access
1.3 Layering
1.4 Basic concepts and definitions
1.5 Delay & loss in packet-switched networks
1.6 History
1.7 Physical media

Introduction 1-57
Physical media
Twisted Pair (TP)
Bit: propagates between two insulated copper
transmitter/rcvr pairs wires
physical link: what lies Category 3: traditional
between transmitter & phone wires, 10 Mbps
receiver Ethernet
Category 5:
guided media:

100Mbps Ethernet
signals propagate in solid
A, -A A+, -A+
media: copper, fiber, coax
unguided media:
signals propagate freely,
e.g., radio

Introduction 1-58
Physical media: coax, fiber
Coaxial cable: Fiber optic cable:
two concentric copper glass fiber carrying light
conductors pulses, each pulse a bit
bidirectional high-speed operation:
high-speed point-to-point
transmission (e.g., 10s-
100s Gps)
low error rate: repeaters
spaced far apart ; immune
to electromagnetic noise

1-59
Physical media: radio
signal carried in Radio link types:
electromagnetic terrestrial microwave
spectrum e.g. up to 45 Mbps channels

no physical wire LAN (e.g., Wifi)

bidirectional 11Mbps, 54 Mbps

propagation wide-area (e.g., cellular)

environment effects: e.g. 3G: hundreds of kbps

reflection satellite
obstruction by objects Kbps to 45Mbps channel (or
Interference multiple smaller channels)
Path loss 270 msec end-end delay
geosynchronous versus low
altitude
Introduction 1-60
Modulation

(a) A binary signal (c) Frequency modulation

(b) Amplitude modulation
Introduction 1-61
Encoding
NRZ
Baseline wander
Clock recovery
Manchester
Needs faster clock: Baud rate = 2x Bit rate
Each 0 is actually 10, 1 is actually 01

Introduction 1-62
Encoding

4B/5B with NRZI

Transitions at consecutive
1s, No more than 3
consecutive 0s

Introduction 1-63