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Forms of Energy
Energy can exist in numerous forms such as thermal, mechanical,
kinetic, potential, electric, magnetic, chemical, and nuclear, and their
sum constitutes the total energy, E of a system.
Thermodynamics deals only with the change of the total energy.
Macroscopic forms of energy: Those a system possesses as a whole
with respect to some outside reference frame, such as kinetic and
potential energies.
Microscopic forms of energy: Those related to the molecular
structure of a system and the degree of the molecular activity.
Internal energy, U: The sum of all the microscopic forms of energy.
Kinetic energy
per unit mass
Mass flow rate
Potential energy
Total energy
of a system
Energy of a system
per unit mass
Total energy
per unit mass
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Energy Balance
The net change (increase or decrease) in the total energy of the system
during a process is equal to the difference between the total energy
entering and the total energy leaving the system during that process.
The energy
change of a
system during a
process is equal
to the net work
and heat transfer
between the
system and its
surroundings.
The work (boundary) done on an
adiabatic system is equal to the
increase in the energy of the system. 5
Energy Change of a System, Esystem
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Mechanical Energy
Mechanical energy: The form of energy that can be converted to
mechanical work completely and directly by an ideal mechanical device
such as an ideal turbine.
Kinetic and potential energies: The familiar forms of mechanical energy.
Mechanical energy of a
flowing fluid per unit
mass
Rate of mechanical
energy of a flowing fluid
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Mechanical Energy & Efficiency
Mechanical energy: The form of energy that can be converted to
mechanical work completely and directly by an ideal mechanical device
such as an ideal turbine.
Mechanical energy of a flowing fluid per unit mass:
The mechanical energy of a fluid does not change during flow if its
pressure, density, velocity, and elevation remain constant.
In the absence of any irreversible losses, the mechanical energy change
represents the mechanical work supplied to the fluid (if emech > 0) or
extracted from the fluid (if emech < 0).
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Mechanical energy is illustrated by an ideal hydraulic turbine coupled with an
ideal generator. In the absence of irreversible losses, the maximum produced
power is proportional to (a) the change in water surface elevation from the
upstream to the downstream reservoir or (b) (close-up view) the drop in water
pressure from just upstream to just downstream of the turbine.
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The mechanical energy of water at the bottom of a
container is equal to the mechanical energy at any
depth including the free surface of the container.
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Mechanical efficiency
Generator
efficiency
Pump-Motor
overall efficiency
Turbine-Generator
overall efficiency
Figure 1
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Example 2
Electric power is to be generated by installing a hydraulic turbine-
generator as shown in Figure 2. The site is 70m below the free
surface of a large water reservoir that can supply water at a rate of
1500 kg/s steadily. The mechanical power output of the turbine is
800kW and the electric power generation is 750kW. Determine the
turbine efficiency and the combined turbine-generator efficiency of
this plant. 1
70 m 750 kW
Turbine Generator
Figure 2
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We take the free surface of the reservoir to be point 1 and the turbine exit to be point 2. We also take
the turbine exit as the reference level (z2 = 0), and thus the potential energy at points 1 and 2 are pe1 =
gz1 and pe2 = 0. The flow energy P/ at both points is zero since both 1 and 2 are open to the
atmosphere (P1 = P2 = Patm). Further, the kinetic energy at both points is zero (ke 1 = ke2 = 0) since the
water at point 1 is essentially motionless, and the kinetic energy of water at turbine exit is assumed to
be negligible. The potential energy of water at point 1 is
1 kJ/kg
pe1 gz1 (9.81 m/s 2 )( 70 m) 0.687 kJ/kg
1000 m 2 /s 2
Then the rate at which the mechanical energy of the
fluid is supplied to the turbine become
E mech, fluid m (e mech, in e mech, out ) m ( pe1 0) m pe1
(1500 kg/s)(0.68 7 kJ/kg)
1031 kW
W shaft,out 800 kW
turbine 0.776 or 77.6%
| E mech, fluid | 1031 kW
W elect,out 750 kW
turbine-gen 0.727 or 72.7%
| E mech, fluid | 1031 kW
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Example 3
At a certain location, wind is blowing steadily at 12 m/s.
Determine the mechanical energy of air per unit mass and the
power generation potential of the wind turbine with 50m
diameter blades at that location. If overall efficiency is 30%,
determine the actual electric power generation. Take the air
density to be 1.25 kg/m3.
Wind
Turbine
Wind
50m
12 m/s
Figure 3 17
Example 4
The water in a large lake is to be used to generate electricity by the
installation of a hydraulic turbine generator. The elevation difference
between the free surfaces upstream and downstream of the dam is
50m. Water is to be supplied at a rate of 5000kg/s. If the electric
power generated is measured to be 1862 kW and the generator
efficiency is 95%, determine the following.
a) Overall efficiency of the
turbine-generator.
b) The mechanical efficiency
of the turbine.
c) The shaft power supplied
by the turbine generator.
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THE BERNOULLI EQUATION
Bernoulli equation: An approximate relation between pressure,
velocity, and elevation, and is valid in regions of steady,
incompressible flow where net frictional forces are negligible.
Despite its simplicity, it has proven to be a very powerful tool in fluid
mechanics.
The Bernoulli approximation is typically useful in flow regions outside
of boundary layers and wakes, where the fluid motion is governed by
the combined effects of pressure and gravity forces.
Bernoulli
Steady, incompressible flow: equation
The forces acting on a fluid
particle along a streamline.
The sum of the kinetic, potential, and The Bernoulli equation between any
flow energies of a fluid particle is two points on the same streamline:
constant along a streamline during
steady flow when compressibility and
frictional effects are negligible. 20
The Bernoulli equation can be viewed as the
conservation of mechanical energy principle.
This is equivalent to the general conservation
of energy principle for systems that do not
involve any conversion of mechanical energy
and thermal energy to each other, and thus
the mechanical energy and thermal energy are
conserved separately.
The Bernoulli equation states that during
steady, incompressible flow with negligible
The Bernoulli equation friction, the various forms of mechanical
states that the sum of the energy are converted to each other, but their
kinetic, potential, and flow sum remains constant.
energies of a fluid particle is In other words, there is no dissipation of
constant along a streamline mechanical energy during such flows since
during steady flow. there is no friction that converts mechanical
energy to sensible thermal (internal) energy.
Despite the highly restrictive approximations
used in its derivation, the Bernoulli equation is
commonly used in practice since a variety of
practical fluid flow problems can be analyzed
to reasonable accuracy with it. 21
Force Balance across Streamlines
Force balance in the direction n normal to the streamline yields the following
relation applicable across the streamlines for steady, incompressible flow:
The hydraulic
grade line (HGL)
and the energy
grade line (EGL)
for free discharge
from a reservoir
through a
horizontal pipe
with a diffuser.
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Notes on HGL and EGL
For stationary bodies such as reservoirs or lakes, the EGL and HGL coincide with
the free surface of the liquid.
The EGL is always a distance V2/2g above the HGL. These two curves approach
each other as the velocity decreases, and they diverge as the velocity increases.
In an idealized Bernoulli-type flow, EGL is horizontal and its height remains
constant.
For open-channel flow, the HGL coincides with the free surface of the liquid, and
the EGL is a distance V2/2g above the free surface.
At a pipe exit, the pressure head is zero (atmospheric pressure) and thus the
HGL coincides with the pipe outlet.
The mechanical energy loss due to frictional effects (conversion to thermal
energy) causes the EGL and HGL to slope downward in the direction of flow. The
slope is a measure of the head loss in the pipe. A component, such as a valve,
that generates significant frictional effects causes a sudden drop in both EGL and
HGL at that location.
A steep jump/drop occurs in EGL and HGL whenever mechanical energy is
added or removed to or from the fluid (pump, turbine).
The (gage) pressure of a fluid is zero at locations where the HGL intersects the
fluid. The pressure in a flow section that lies above the HGL is negative, and the
pressure in a section that lies below the HGL is positive. 29
In an idealized Bernoulli-type flow,
EGL is horizontal and its height A steep jump occurs in EGL and HGL
remains constant. But this is not whenever mechanical energy is added to
the case for HGL when the flow the fluid by a pump, and a steep drop
velocity varies along the flow. occurs whenever mechanical energy is
removed from the fluid by a turbine.
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Example: Velocity
Measurement by a Pitot Tube
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GENERAL ENERGY EQUATION
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A force F acting through
Shaft Work a moment arm r
generates a torque T
Shaft
work
The power transmitted through the shaft
is the shaft work done per unit time
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In a typical engineering problem, the
control volume may contain many
inlets and outlets; energy flows in at
each inlet, and energy flows out at
each outlet. Energy also enters the
control volume through net heat
transfer and net shaft work.
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ENERGY ANALYSIS OF STEADY FLOWS
single-stream devices
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Ideal flow (no mechanical The lost mechanical
energy loss): energy in a fluid flow
system results in an
increase in the internal
Mechanical energy loss: energy of the fluid and
thus in a rise of fluid
temperature.
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Energy equation in terms of heads
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Mechanical energy flow chart for a fluid flow system that involves a
pump and a turbine. Vertical dimensions show each energy term
expressed as an equivalent column height of fluid, i.e., head.
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Kinetic Energy Correction Factor,
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Example
In a hydroelectric power plant, 100m3/s of water flows from an
elevation of 120m to a turbine, where electric power is generated.
The total irreversible head loss in the piping system from point 1 to
point 2 (excluding the turbine unit) is determined to be 35m. If the
overall efficiency of the turbine-generator is 80%, estimate the
electrical power output.
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Summary
Mechanical Energy and Efficiency
The Bernoulli Equation
Derivation of the Bernoulli Equation
Force Balance across Streamlines
Static, Dynamic, and Stagnation Pressures
Limitations on the Use of the Bernoulli Equation
Hydraulic Grade Line (HGL) and Energy Grade Line (EGL)
Applications of the Bernouli Equation
General Energy Equation
Energy Transfer by Heat, Q
Energy Transfer by Work, W
Shaft Work
Work Done by Pressure Forces
Energy Analysis of Steady Flows
Special Case: Incompressible Flow with No Mechanical Work Devices
and Negligible Friction
Kinetic Energy Correction Factor,
Applications of the Energy Equation
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