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FLIGHT MECHANICS
Review: Bernoulli Equation and Examples
D. R. Kirk
LECTURE OUTLINE
Review of Eulers Equation
Eulers equation for incompressible flow Bernoullis Equation
dp VdV
Eulers Equation (Differential Equation)
Relates changes in momentum to changes in force (momentum equation)
Relates a change in pressure (dp) to a chance in velocity (dV)
Assumptions we made:
Steady flow
Neglected friction (inviscid flow), body forces, and external forces
dp VdV 0
p1 V1
V22 V12
p2 p1 0
2 2
BERNOULLIS EQUATION
2 2
V V
p2 p1
2 1
2 2
2
V
p Constant along a streamline
2
If flow is irrotational p+V2 = constant everywhere
Remember:
Bernoullis equation holds only for inviscid (frictionless) and
incompressible (=constant) flows
Relates properties between different points along a streamline or entire
flow field if irrotational
For a compressible flow Eulers equation must be used ( is a variable)
Both Eulers and Bernoullis equations are expressions of F=ma
expressed in a useful form for fluid flows and aerodynamics
HOW DOES AN AIRFOIL GENERATE LIFT?
Lift is mainly due to imbalance of pressure distribution over the top and bottom
surfaces of airfoil
If pressure is lower than pressure on bottom surface, lift is generated
Why is pressure lower on top surface?
Streamtube A is squashed
most in nose region
(ahead of maximum thickness)
A
B
HOW DOES AN AIRFOIL GENERATE LIFT?
2. As velocity increases pressure decreases
1
Incompressible: Bernoullis Equation p V 2 constant
2
Compressible: Eulers Equation
dp VdV
Called Bernoulli Effect
3. With lower pressure over upper surface and higher pressure over bottom
surface, airfoil feels a net force in upward direction Lift
B
EXAMPLE 2: WIND TUNNELS
A wind tunnel is a ground-based experimental facility used to produce air
flow to study flight of airplanes, missiles, space vehicles, etc.
Many different types of wind tunnels
Subsonic, transonic, supersonic, hypersonic
Open-Circuit Tunnel
Closed-Circuit Tunnel
Test Section 2
Fan
1 Diffuser
Contraction
(Nozzle)
1V1 A1 2V2 A2 V 2 2
p1 p2 V12
2
A1
V2 V1 2 p1 p2
A2 V2
A 2
1 1
p1 V1 p2 V2
2 2 1 2
2 2 A1
EXAMPLE 3: MEASUREMENT OF AIRSPEED
How do we measure an airplanes speed in flight?
Pitot tubes are used on aircraft as speedometers (point measurement)
STATIC VS. TOTAL PRESSURE
In aerodynamics, 2 types of pressure: Static and Total (Stagnation)
Static Pressure, p
Due to random motion of gas molecules
Pressure we would feel if moving along with the flow
Pressure in Bernoullis equation is static pressure
Total (Stagnation) Pressure, p0 or pt
Property associated with flow motion
Total pressure at a given point in flow is the pressure that would exist if
flow were slowed down isentropically to zero velocity
p0 > p
MEASUREMENT OF AIRSPEED:
INCOMPRESSIBLE FLOW
1
p V1 p0
2
2
Static Dynamic Total
pressure pressure pressure
2 p 0 p
V1
Incompressible Flow
SKETCH OF A PITOT TUBE (4.11)
Open at A, closed at B
A combination of p0 and p
allows us to measure V1 at a p
given point
p0
Instrument is called a Pitot-
static probe
MEASUREMENT OF AIRSPEED:
INCOMPRESSIBLE FLOW
1
p V1 p0
2
p
1
V12 p0
2 2
2 p 0 p
V1
Incompressible Flow
TRUE VS. EQUIVALENT AIRSPEED
What is value of ?
2 p0 p
If is measured in actual air Vtrue
around the airplane
Measurement is difficult to do
1 2 p0 1 2 1
c pT1 V1 c pT0 1 M1
2 p1 2
2 1
T0 V1 0 1 2 1
1 1 M1
T1 2c pT1 1 2
T0 1 2
1 M1 cp: specific heat at constant pressure
M1=V1/a1
T1 2 air=1.4
MEASUREMENT OF AIRSPEED:
SUBSONIC COMRESSIBLE FLOW
So, how do we use these results to measure airspeed
1
2 p0 p0 and p1 give
M1 2
1 Flight Mach number
1 p1 Mach meter
2
1
2 a p M1=V1/a1
V1
2 1
0
1 Actual Flight Speed
1 p1
2
1
2 a p p Actual Flight Speed
V1
2 1
0 1
1 1
1 p1 using pressure difference
2
1 What is T1 and a1?
2as p0 p1
Vcal
2
1 1 Again use sea-level
1 ps conditions Ts, as, ps
(a =340.3 m/s)
1
REAL EFFECTS: VISCOSITY (m)
To understand drag and actual airfoil/wing behavior we need an understanding of
viscous flows (all real flows have friction)
The presence of friction in the flow causes a shear stress at the surface of a body,
which, in turn contributes to the aerodynamic drag of the body: skin friction drag
THE REYNOLDS NUMBER
One of most important dimensionless numbers in fluid mechanics/ aerodynamics
Reynolds number is ratio of two forces
V c
Inertial Forces
Re
Viscous Forces
c is length scale (chord)
m
Reynolds number tells you when viscous forces are important and when viscosity
can be neglected
Turbulent velocity
profiles are fuller
cf,turb > cf,lam
WHY DOES AN AIRFOIL STALL?
Key to understanding: Friction causes flow separation within boundary layer
Separation then creates another form of drag called pressure drag due to separation
WHY DOES AN AIRFOIL STALL?
Key to understanding
Friction causes flow separation within boundary layer
Separation then creates another form of drag called pressure drag due to
separation
WHY DOES BOUNDARY LAYER SEPARATE?
Adverse pressure gradient interacting with velocity profile through B.L.
High speed flow near upper edge of B.L. has enough speed to keep moving
through adverse pressure gradient
Lower speed fluid (which has been retarded by friction) is exposed to same
adverse pressure gradient is stopped and direction of flow can be reversed
This reversal of flow direction causes flow to separate
Turbulent B.L. more resistance to flow separation than laminar B.L. because of
fuller velocity profile
To help prevent flow separation we desire a turbulent B.L.
WHY DOES AN AIRFOIL STALL?
Two major consequences of separated flow over airfoil
Dramatic loss of lift (stalling)
Separated flow causes higher pressure on upper surface of airfoil
Major increase in drag
Separation causes lower pressure on trailing edge
Unbalance of pressure force causes pressure drag due to separation
SUMMARY OF VISCOUS EFFECTS ON DRAG
Friction has two effects:
Skin friction due to shear stress at wall
Pressure drag due to flow separation
D D friction D pressure
Total drag due to Drag due to Drag due to
= +
viscous effects skin friction separation
Called Profile Drag
Pressure drag
DRAG
(due to viscous
flow separation, wake)
GOLF BALL AERODYNAMICS
Large Wake of Separated Flow, Reduced Size Wake of Separated Flow,
High Pressure Drag Lower Pressure Drag
Laminar B.L. Separation Point Turbulent B.L. Separation Point
Total Drag
DRAG
GOLF BALL AERODYNAMICS: SUMMARY
d
Same total drag as airfoil