Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Textbook:
-A.D. Helfrick, and W.D. Cooper, Modern Electronic Instrumentation and Measurement
Techniques Prentice Hall, 1994.
- D.A. Bell, Electronic Instrumentation and Measurements, 2nd ed., Prentice Hell, 1994.
Resistors Types Importance parameters
Value Tolerance
Power rating Temperature coefficient
Metal film
10m~100k 0.1~1 0.05~5 0.4~10
(precision)
Tolerance
Nominal value
Ex. 1 k 10% 900-1100
E
R 10n For 10% resistor E = 12
n = 0; R = 1.00000
where E = 6, 12, 24, 96 n = 1; R = 1.21152
for 20, 10, 5, 1% tolerance n = 2; R = 1.46779
n = 0, 1, 2, 3, n = 3; R = 1.77827
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Bridge circuit
Voltmeter-ammeter
Substitution
Ohmmeter
Voltmeter-ammeter
V V
A A
R R
Substitution
A A
Decade resistance
Unknow box substituted in
Supply resistance Rx Supply place of the
unknown
Voltmeter-ammeter method
Pro and con:
Simple and theoretical oriented
Requires two meter and calculations
Subject to error: Voltage drop in ammeter (Fig. (a))
Current in voltmeter (Fig. (b))
I
+ VA -
A A
+ + + + IV Ix
I
VS V V Rx Vx VS V V Rx
- - - - -
Fig. (b)
Fig. (a)
V V Rx
V V V
Rx A
V Measured Rx: R
Measured Rx: Rmeas x A meas
I I x I V 1 IV / I x
I I I
if Vx>>VA Rmeas Rx if Ix>>IV Rmeas Rx
Therefore this circuit is suitable for measure Therefore this circuit is suitable for measure
large resistance small resistance
Ohmmeter
Voltmeter-ammeter method is rarely used in practical applications
(mostly used in Laboratory)
Ohmmeter uses only one meter by keeping one parameter constant
Example: series ohmmeter
Resistance to
be measured Nonlinear scale
Standard
resistance
15k
Rx
R1 50
Battery
Meter Infinity
Rm
VS resistance
Vs
Rx R1 Rm Meter
I
Basic series ohmmeter consisting of a PMMC and a series-connected standard resistor (R1). When
the ohmmeter terminals are shorted (Rx = 0) meter full scale defection occurs. At half scale defection
Rx = R1 + Rm, and at zero defection the terminals are open-circuited.
Bridge Circuit
Bridge Circuit is a null method, operates on the principle of
comparison. That is a known (standard) value is adjusted until it is
equal to the unknown value.
Bridge Circuit
DC Bridge AC Bridge
(Resistance)
Inductance Capacitance Frequency
A Balance condition:
No potential difference across the
R1 R2 galvanometer (there is no current through
the galvanometer)
I1 I2
Under this condition: VAD = VAB
V D B
I3 I4 I1R1 I2R2
And also VDC = VBC
R3 R4
I3R3 I4R4
where I1, I2, I3, and I4 are current in resistance
arms respectively, since I1 = I3 and I2 = I4
C
R1 R2 or R2
Rx R4 R3
R3 R4 R1
Example
12 V 12 V
12 V 12 V
R2 R1 R2 R3
SOLUTION Apply the error equation Rx R3 1
R1 R1 R2 R3
Example A Wheatstone bridge has a ratio arm of 1/100 (R2/R1). At first balance, R3 is
adjusted to 1000.3 The value of Rx is then changed by the temperature change, the new
value of R3 to achieve the balance condition again is 1002.1 Find the change of Rx due to
the temperature change.
R2 1
SOLUTION At first balance: Rx old R3 1000.3 10.003
R1 100
R2 1
After the temperature change: Rx new R3 1002.1 10.021
R1 100
Therefore, the change of Rx due to the temperature change is 0.018
Sensitivity of Galvanometer
A galvanometer is use to detect an unbalance condition in
Wheatstone bridge. Its sensitivity is governed by: Current sensitivity
(currents per unit defection) and internal resistance.
consider a bridge circuit under a small unbalance condition, and apply circuit
analysis to solve the current through galvanometer
C D
RTH R1 // R3 R2 // R4
R3 R4
Completed Circuit
RTH C
VTH
I g TH
Ig= V
RTH+Rg
VTH G RTH R g
D
where Ig = the galvanometer current
Rg = the galvanometer resistance
Example 1 Figure below show the schematic diagram of a Wheatstone bridge with values of
the bridge elements. The battery voltage is 5 V and its internal resistance negligible. The
galvanometer has a current sensitivity of 10 mm/A and an internal resistance of 100 .
Calculate the deflection of the galvanometer caused by the 5- unbalance in arm BC
SOLUTION The bridge circuit is in the small unbalance condition since the value of
resistance in arm BC is 2,005
A Thvenin Voltage (VTH)
100 1000
100 1000
R1 R2
VTH V AD V AC 5 V
5V D G C 100 200 1000 2005
R3 R4 2.77 mV
200 2005
B
Thvenin Resistance (RTH)
(a)
100 A 1000
RTH 100 // 200 1000 // 2005 734
C
200 2005
D
The galvanometer current
B
VTH 2.77 mV
(b) Ig 3.32 A
RTH= 734 C RTH Rg 734 100
Ig=3.34 A
VTH
2.77 mV G Rg= 100
Galvanometer deflection
D
10 mm
d 3.32 A 33.2 mm
(c) A
Example 2 The galvanometer in the previous example is replaced by one with an internal
resistance of 500 and a current sensitivity of 1mm/A. Assuming that a deflection of 1 mm
can be observed on the galvanometer scale, determine if this new galvanometer is capable
of detecting the 5- unbalance in arm BC
SOLUTION Since the bridge constants have not been changed, the equivalent circuit
is again represented by a Thvenin voltage of 2.77 mV and a Thvenin resistance of
734 The new galvanometer is now connected to the output terminals, resulting a
galvanometer current.
VTH 2.77 mV
Ig 2.24 A
RTH Rg 734 500
SOLUTION
Application of Wheatstone Bridge
Murray/Varrley Loop Short Circuit Fault (Loop Test)
Loop test can be carried out for the location of either a ground or a short
circuit fault. Power or
communication cable
R3 X1
short R1
circuit fault
R2
R4 X2
Short
circuit
fault
ground Murray Loop Test
fault
Let R = R1+R2
R3 1R
At balance condition:
R4 R2
R3 R4
Assume: earth is a R1 R R2 R
good conductor 3
R R 4 R3 R4
The value of R1 and R2 are used to calculate back into distance.
Murray/Varrley Loop Short Circuit Fault (Loop Test)
Examples of commonly used cables (Approx. R at 20oC)
Wire dia. In mm Ohms per km. Meter per ohm
0.32 218.0 4.59
0.40 136.0 7.35
0.50 84.0 11.90
0.63 54.5 18.35
0.90 27.2 36.76
Remark The resistance of copper increases 0.4% for 1oC rise in Temp.
Power or
communication cable SOLUTION
R3 X1
R1
R3 1000
R1 R 300 200
R3 R4
R2 1000 500
R4
X2
R4 500
Short R2 R 300 100
circuit
fault R3 R4 1000 500
Murray Loop Test
Therefore, the location from the measurement point is 100 36.67 m/ 3667m
Application of Wheatstone Bridge
Unbalance bridge
Consider a bridge circuit which have identical
A resistors, R in three arms, and the last arm has the
resistance of R +R. if R/R << 1
R R
Thvenin Voltage (VTH)
V
C G D
R
VTH VCD V
R R+R 4R
R v (k
6V
3
2 4.5 k
1
0
Rv Output 0 20 40 60 80 100 120
5 k signal o
Temp ( C)
(b)
(a)
R3 R2 5 k5 k
SOLUTION (a) at bridge balance, we have Rv 5 k
R1 5 k
The value of Rv = 5 k corresponding to the temperature of 80oC in the given plot.
(b) at temperature of 60oC, Rv is read as 4.5 k thus R = 5 - 4.5 = 0.5 k We will
use Thvenin equivalent circuit to solve the above problem.
R 0.5 k
VTH V 6 V 0.15V
4R 45 k
It should be noted that R = 0.5 k in the problem does not satisfy the assumption R/R
<< 1, the exact calculation gives VTH = 0.158 V. However, the above calculation still gives
an acceptable solution.
Low resistance Bridge: Rx < 1
Effect of connecting lead
The effects of the connecting lead and the connecting
terminals are prominent when the value of Rx decreases
R2 R3 to a few Ohms
m
p Ry = the resistance of the connecting lead from R 3 to
V G Ry
n Rx
R1 Rx At point m: Ry is added to the unknown Rx, resulting in too
high and indication of Rx
At point n: Ry is added to R3, therefore the measurement of Rx
will be lower than it should be.
R2
R3 r1 causes no effect on the balance condition.
The effects of r2 and r3 could be minimized, if R1 >>
Rb r2 and Ra >> r3.
G
The main error comes from r4, even though this value
Ra is very small.
r3 r4
R1
r2
Rx
r1
Kelvin Double Bridge: 1 to 0.00001
R1 RbRy R1 Ra R1
Rx R3 Rx R3
R 2 Ra Rb Ry R2 Rb
Eq. (1) = (2) and rearrange:
R2
If we set R1/R2 = Ra/Rb, the second term of the right hand side will be zero, the relation
reduce to the well known relation. In summary, The resistance of the yoke has no effect
on the measurement, if the two sets of ratio arms have equal resistance ratios.
High Resistance Measurement
Guard
ring
A A
Is Is
High Iv Iv
High
voltage V voltage V Material
supply supply under test
Is
(a) Circuit that measures insulation volume (b) Use of guard ring to measure only volume
resistance in parallel with surface leakage resistance
resistance
V V
Rmeas Rs // Rv Rmeas Rv
I s Iv I v
High Resistance Measurement
Example The Insulation of a metal-sheath electrical cable is tested using 10,000 V supply
and a microammeter. A current of 5 A is measured when the components are connected
without guard wire. When the circuit is connect with guard wire, the current is 1.5 A.
Calculate (a) the volume resistance of the cable insulation and (b) the surface leakage
resistance
SOLUTION
(a ) Volume resistance:
IV =1.5 A
V 10000 V
RV 6.7 109
IV 1.5 A
IV+ IS = 5 A IS = 5 A IV = 3.5A
V 10000 V
RS 2.9109
IS 3.5 A
MegaOhm Bridge
RA RB RA RB
E G E R2
G
R1
RC Rx RC
l o = 410-7 H/m
L Re
Rp
Rss2 X 2
Rs2 X 2 R pX 2p X p R p2
Rp X p s Rs 2 Xs 2
Rs Xs R X2 R X2
p p p p
Quality Factor of Inductor and Capacitor
Quality factor of a coil: the ratio of reactance to resistance (frequency
dependent and circuit configuration)
X s Ls Typical Q ~ 5 1000
Inductance series circuit: Q
Rs Rs
R Rp
Inductance parallel circuit: Q p
X p Lp
V V/RP
LS Q
RP
Q ILS LP
RS V/L P
IRS I
I V
1 C R
2 2 2 V
CS C P
P P 1
C PR P
2 2 2 CP C S
CP 1 2C S2R S2
I RS LS
1
RS RP RP
1 2C 2S R2
1 2C P2R P2 RP S
RS
IRS I 2C S2R S2
I/CS VCP
D CS R S 1
D
CPRP
V V/RP
AC Bridge: Balance Condition
B
all four arms are considered as impedance
Z1 Z2 (frequency dependent components)
The detector is an ac responding device:
I1 I2
headphone, ac meter
V A D C Source: an ac voltage at desired frequency
The second condition for bridge balance requires that the sum of the phase angles of
opposite arms be equal, therefore
4 =2 3 1 0 30 80 50 o
I1 I2 Z1 R j L 200 j100
V
D C Z 2 R 1/ jC 300 j600
A
Z3 R 450
Z4 unknown
Z3 Z4
D
The general equation for bridge balance states that Z1Z4 = Z2 Z3
This result indicates that Z4 is a pure inductance with an inductive reactance of 150
at at frequency of 1kHz. Since the inductive reactance XL = 2fL, we solve for L
and obtain L = 23.9 mH
Comparison Bridge: Capacitance
Frequency independent
To satisfy both balance conditions, the bridge must contain two variable
elements in its configuration.
Comparison Bridge: Inductance
Frequency independent
To satisfy both balance conditions, the bridge must contain two variable
elements in its configuration.
Maxwell Bridge
Frequency independent
Suitable for Medium Q coil (1-10), impractical for high Q coil: since R1 will be very
large.
Hay Bridge
Rx
2 2
C1 R1R 2R 3 Lx
R2R3C1
1 2C12R 12
and 1 2C12R 12
Lx Z R1 X L Lx
C tan L Q
R Rx
XC 1
tan C
R C1R1
L 1
Rx Z tan L tan C or Q
C1 C1R1
Phasor diagram of arm 4 and 1
R2R3C1
Lx
Thus, Lx can be rewritten as 1 (1/ Q2 )
For high Q coil (> 10), the term (1/Q)2 can be neglected Lx R2R3C1
Schering Bridge
Rx
Dissipation factor of a series RC circuit: D RC
x x
Xx
Dissipation factor tells us about the quality of a capacitor, how close the
phase angle of the capacitor is to the ideal value of 90o
For Schering Bridge, R1 is a fixed value, the dial of C1 can be calibrated directly in D
at one particular frequency
Wien Bridge
Cw C3 Rx
Wagner ground connection eliminates some
R3 Cx effects of stray capacitances in a bridge circuit
D Simultaneous balance of both bridge makes the
Wagner ground C4 point 1 and 2 at the ground potential. (short C1
and C2 to ground, C4 and C5 are eliminated from
detector circuit)
Diagram of Wagner ground The capacitance across the bridge arms e.g. C 6
cannot be eliminated by Wagner ground.
Capacitor Values
Ceramic Capacitor
Capacitor Values
Film Capacitor
Capacitor Values
Chip Capacitor
Capacitor Values
Tantalum Capacitor
Capacitor Values
Chip Capacitor