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Bridge Measurements

Bridge Circuits (DC and AC)


Electronic Instruments (Analog & Digital)
Signal Generators
Frequency and Time Interval Measurements
Introduction to Transducers

Textbook:
-A.D. Helfrick, and W.D. Cooper, Modern Electronic Instrumentation and Measurement
Techniques Prentice Hall, 1994.
- D.A. Bell, Electronic Instrumentation and Measurements, 2nd ed., Prentice Hell, 1994.
Resistors Types Importance parameters
Value Tolerance
Power rating Temperature coefficient

Type Values () Power rating Tolerance (%) Temperature picture


(W) coefficient
(ppm/C)
Wire wound 10m~3k 3~1k 1~10 30~300
(power)
Wire wound
10m~1M 0.1~1 0.005~1 3~30
(precision)

Carbon film 1~1M 0.1~3 2~10 100~200

Metal film 100m~1M 0.1~3 0.5~5 10~200

Metal film
10m~100k 0.1~1 0.05~5 0.4~10
(precision)

Metal oxide film 100m~100k 1~10 2~10 200~500

Data: Transistor technology (10/2000)


RReessissttoorrVVaaluueess Color codes
Alphanumeri
4 band color codes
c
Color Digit Multiplier Tolerance Temperature
(%) coefficient
(ppm/C) Most sig. fig.
of value Tolerance
Silver 10-2 10 K
Least sig. fig. Multiplier
- - -
Gold 10-1 5 J of value
Ex.
Black 0 100 - - 250 K
Brown 1 101 1 F 100 H
Red 2 102 2 G 50 G Green
Red
Orange 3 103 - 15 D Blue Brown
-
Yellow 4 104 - 25 F R = 560 2%
Green 5 105 0.5 D 20 E
Blue 6 106 0.25 C 10 C
Alphanumeric
Violet 7 107 0.1 B 5 B R, K, M, G, and T =
Gray 8 108 - 1 A x100, x103 , x106 , x109 , and x1012
-
White 9 109 -
- - Ex. 6M8 = 6.8 x 106
- 20 M
Data: Transistor technology (10/2000)
Resistor Values Commonly available resistance for a fixed resistor
R = x %x

Tolerance
Nominal value
Ex. 1 k 10% 900-1100

For 10% resistor


10, 12, 15, 18,
10 12 15
R

E
R 10n For 10% resistor E = 12
n = 0; R = 1.00000
where E = 6, 12, 24, 96 n = 1; R = 1.21152
for 20, 10, 5, 1% tolerance n = 2; R = 1.46779
n = 0, 1, 2, 3, n = 3; R = 1.77827
RReessisstaanncceeMMeeaassuurreemmeenntTTeecchhnniqquueess

Bridge circuit
Voltmeter-ammeter
Substitution
Ohmmeter
Voltmeter-ammeter
V V

A A
R R
Substitution
A A
Decade resistance
Unknow box substituted in
Supply resistance Rx Supply place of the
unknown
Voltmeter-ammeter method
Pro and con:
Simple and theoretical oriented
Requires two meter and calculations
Subject to error: Voltage drop in ammeter (Fig. (a))
Current in voltmeter (Fig. (b))
I
+ VA -
A A
+ + + + IV Ix
I
VS V V Rx Vx VS V V Rx

- - - - -

Fig. (b)
Fig. (a)
V V Rx
V V V
Rx A
V Measured Rx: R
Measured Rx: Rmeas x A meas
I I x I V 1 IV / I x
I I I
if Vx>>VA Rmeas Rx if Ix>>IV Rmeas Rx

Therefore this circuit is suitable for measure Therefore this circuit is suitable for measure
large resistance small resistance
Ohmmeter
Voltmeter-ammeter method is rarely used in practical applications
(mostly used in Laboratory)
Ohmmeter uses only one meter by keeping one parameter constant
Example: series ohmmeter
Resistance to
be measured Nonlinear scale
Standard
resistance
15k
Rx
R1 50
Battery
Meter Infinity
Rm
VS resistance

Vs
Rx R1 Rm Meter
I

Basic series ohmmeter Ohmmeter scale

Basic series ohmmeter consisting of a PMMC and a series-connected standard resistor (R1). When
the ohmmeter terminals are shorted (Rx = 0) meter full scale defection occurs. At half scale defection
Rx = R1 + Rm, and at zero defection the terminals are open-circuited.
Bridge Circuit
Bridge Circuit is a null method, operates on the principle of
comparison. That is a known (standard) value is adjusted until it is
equal to the unknown value.

Bridge Circuit

DC Bridge AC Bridge
(Resistance)
Inductance Capacitance Frequency

Wheatstone Bridge Maxwell Bridge Schering Bridge Wien Bridge


Kelvin Bridge Hay Bridge
Megaohm Bridge Owen Bridge
Etc.
Wheatstone Bridge and Balance Condition

Suitable for moderate resistance values: 1 to 10 M

A Balance condition:
No potential difference across the
R1 R2 galvanometer (there is no current through
the galvanometer)
I1 I2
Under this condition: VAD = VAB
V D B
I3 I4 I1R1 I2R2
And also VDC = VBC
R3 R4
I3R3 I4R4
where I1, I2, I3, and I4 are current in resistance
arms respectively, since I1 = I3 and I2 = I4
C
R1 R2 or R2
Rx R4 R3
R3 R4 R1
Example

12 V 12 V

(a) Equal resistance (b) Proportional resistance

12 V 12 V

(c) Proportional resistance (d) 2-Volt unbalance


Measurement Errors
R R 2
1. Limiting error of the known resistors Rx R3 R3 2
R1 R1
Using 1st order approximation: R2 R1 R2 R3
Rx R3 1
A R1 R1 R2 R3

R1 R2 2. Insufficient sensitivity of Detector

3. Changes in resistance of the bridge


arms due to the heating effect (I2R) or
V D B temperatures

4. Thermal emf or contact potential in the


bridge circuit
R3
Rx 5. Error due to the lead connection
C 3, 4 and 5 play the important role in the
measurement of low value resistance
Example In the Wheatstone bridge circuit, R3 is a decade resistance with a specified in
accuracy 0.2% and R1 and R2 = 500 0.1%. If the value of R3 at the null position is
520.4 determine the possible minimum and maximum value of RX

R2 R1 R2 R3
SOLUTION Apply the error equation Rx R3 1
R1 R1 R2 R3

520.4500 0.1 0.1 0.2


Rx 1 520.4( 1 0.004) 520.4 0.4%
500 100 100 100
Therefore the possible values of R3 are 518.32 to 522.48

Example A Wheatstone bridge has a ratio arm of 1/100 (R2/R1). At first balance, R3 is
adjusted to 1000.3 The value of Rx is then changed by the temperature change, the new
value of R3 to achieve the balance condition again is 1002.1 Find the change of Rx due to
the temperature change.
R2 1
SOLUTION At first balance: Rx old R3 1000.3 10.003
R1 100
R2 1
After the temperature change: Rx new R3 1002.1 10.021
R1 100
Therefore, the change of Rx due to the temperature change is 0.018
Sensitivity of Galvanometer
A galvanometer is use to detect an unbalance condition in
Wheatstone bridge. Its sensitivity is governed by: Current sensitivity
(currents per unit defection) and internal resistance.

consider a bridge circuit under a small unbalance condition, and apply circuit
analysis to solve the current through galvanometer

Thvenin Equivalent Circuit


Thvenin Voltage (VTH)
A
I1
VCD VAC V AD I1R1 I2R2
I2
where I1
V V
R1 R2 and I2
R1 R3 R 2 R4
VS C G D
R3 R4 Therefore R1 R2
VTH VCD V
R1 R 3 R2 R4
B
Sensitivity of Galvanometer (continued)

Thvenin Resistance (RTH)


R1 A R2

C D
RTH R1 // R3 R2 // R4
R3 R4

Completed Circuit
RTH C
VTH
I g TH
Ig= V
RTH+Rg
VTH G RTH R g
D
where Ig = the galvanometer current
Rg = the galvanometer resistance
Example 1 Figure below show the schematic diagram of a Wheatstone bridge with values of
the bridge elements. The battery voltage is 5 V and its internal resistance negligible. The
galvanometer has a current sensitivity of 10 mm/A and an internal resistance of 100 .
Calculate the deflection of the galvanometer caused by the 5- unbalance in arm BC

SOLUTION The bridge circuit is in the small unbalance condition since the value of
resistance in arm BC is 2,005
A Thvenin Voltage (VTH)
100 1000
100 1000
R1 R2
VTH V AD V AC 5 V
5V D G C 100 200 1000 2005
R3 R4 2.77 mV
200 2005

B
Thvenin Resistance (RTH)
(a)

100 A 1000
RTH 100 // 200 1000 // 2005 734
C
200 2005
D
The galvanometer current
B
VTH 2.77 mV
(b) Ig 3.32 A
RTH= 734 C RTH Rg 734 100
Ig=3.34 A
VTH
2.77 mV G Rg= 100
Galvanometer deflection
D
10 mm
d 3.32 A 33.2 mm
(c) A
Example 2 The galvanometer in the previous example is replaced by one with an internal
resistance of 500 and a current sensitivity of 1mm/A. Assuming that a deflection of 1 mm
can be observed on the galvanometer scale, determine if this new galvanometer is capable
of detecting the 5- unbalance in arm BC

SOLUTION Since the bridge constants have not been changed, the equivalent circuit
is again represented by a Thvenin voltage of 2.77 mV and a Thvenin resistance of
734 The new galvanometer is now connected to the output terminals, resulting a
galvanometer current.

VTH 2.77 mV
Ig 2.24 A
RTH Rg 734 500

The galvanometer deflection therefore equals 2.24 A x 1 mm/A = 2.24 mm,


indicating that this galvanometer produces a deflection that can be easily observed.
Example 3 If all resistances in the Example 1 increase by 10 times, and we use the
galvanometer in the Example 2. Assuming that a deflection of 1 mm can be observed on the
galvanometer scale, determine if this new setting can be detected (the 50- unbalance in
arm BC)

SOLUTION
Application of Wheatstone Bridge
Murray/Varrley Loop Short Circuit Fault (Loop Test)
Loop test can be carried out for the location of either a ground or a short
circuit fault. Power or
communication cable
R3 X1
short R1
circuit fault
R2
R4 X2
Short
circuit
fault
ground Murray Loop Test
fault
Let R = R1+R2
R3 1R
At balance condition:
R4 R2
R3 R4
Assume: earth is a R1 R R2 R
good conductor 3
R R 4 R3 R4
The value of R1 and R2 are used to calculate back into distance.
Murray/Varrley Loop Short Circuit Fault (Loop Test)
Examples of commonly used cables (Approx. R at 20oC)
Wire dia. In mm Ohms per km. Meter per ohm
0.32 218.0 4.59
0.40 136.0 7.35
0.50 84.0 11.90
0.63 54.5 18.35
0.90 27.2 36.76

Remark The resistance of copper increases 0.4% for 1oC rise in Temp.

Let R = R1+R2 and define Ratio = R4/R5 X1


R4
R1
At balance condition: Ratio
R4 1 R

R5 R2 R3 R5
R2
X2
Short
R3 circuit
Ratio R - RatioR3 fault
R1 R R3 R2
Ratio1 Ratio1 Varley Loop Test
Example Murray loop test is used to locate ground fault in a telephone system. The total
resistance, R = R1+ R2 is measured by Wheatstone bridge, and its value is 300 . The
conditions for Murray loop test are as follows:
R3 = 1000 and R4 = 500
Find the location of the fault in meter, if the length per Ohm is 36.67 m.

Power or
communication cable SOLUTION
R3 X1
R1
R3 1000
R1 R 300 200
R3 R4
R2 1000 500
R4
X2
R4 500
Short R2 R 300 100
circuit
fault R3 R4 1000 500
Murray Loop Test

Therefore, the location from the measurement point is 100 36.67 m/ 3667m
Application of Wheatstone Bridge

Unbalance bridge
Consider a bridge circuit which have identical
A resistors, R in three arms, and the last arm has the
resistance of R +R. if R/R << 1
R R
Thvenin Voltage (VTH)
V
C G D
R
VTH VCD V
R R+R 4R

B Thvenin Resistance (RTH)


Small unbalance
occur by the external RTH R
environment
RTH = R
C

This kind of bridge circuit can be found in sensor


R applications, where the resistance in one arm is
VTH=V G
4R sensitive to a physical quantity such as pressure,
D
temperature, strain etc.
Example Circuit in Figure (a) below consists of a resistor Rv which is sensitive to the
temperature change. The plot of R VS Temp. is also shown in Figure (b). Find (a) the
temperature at which the bridge is balance and (b) The output signal at Temperature of
60oC.
6
5 k 5 k 5
4

R v (k
6V
3
2 4.5 k
1
0
Rv Output 0 20 40 60 80 100 120
5 k signal o
Temp ( C)

(b)
(a)
R3 R2 5 k5 k
SOLUTION (a) at bridge balance, we have Rv 5 k
R1 5 k
The value of Rv = 5 k corresponding to the temperature of 80oC in the given plot.
(b) at temperature of 60oC, Rv is read as 4.5 k thus R = 5 - 4.5 = 0.5 k We will
use Thvenin equivalent circuit to solve the above problem.
R 0.5 k
VTH V 6 V 0.15V
4R 45 k
It should be noted that R = 0.5 k in the problem does not satisfy the assumption R/R
<< 1, the exact calculation gives VTH = 0.158 V. However, the above calculation still gives
an acceptable solution.
Low resistance Bridge: Rx < 1
Effect of connecting lead
The effects of the connecting lead and the connecting
terminals are prominent when the value of Rx decreases
R2 R3 to a few Ohms
m
p Ry = the resistance of the connecting lead from R 3 to
V G Ry
n Rx
R1 Rx At point m: Ry is added to the unknown Rx, resulting in too
high and indication of Rx
At point n: Ry is added to R3, therefore the measurement of Rx
will be lower than it should be.

The effect of the connecting lead will be


Rx R np R3 R mp 1
R
At point p: canceled out, if the sum of 2nd and 3rd term is
R2 zero. R1 Rnp R1
R R Rmp Rnp 0 or
rearrange Rx R3 1 Rmp 1 Rnp R2 Rmp R2
R2 R2
R1
Where Rmp and Rnp are the lead resistance Rx R3
from m to p and n to p, respectively. R2
Kelvin Double Bridge: 1 to 0.00001
Four-Terminal Resistor
Current Current
terminals terminals Four-terminal resistors have current terminals
and potential terminals. The resistance is
defined as that between the potential
terminals, so that contact voltage drops at the
current terminals do not introduce errors.
Voltage Voltage
terminals terminals

Four-Terminal Resistor and Kelvin Double Bridge

R2
R3 r1 causes no effect on the balance condition.
The effects of r2 and r3 could be minimized, if R1 >>
Rb r2 and Ra >> r3.
G
The main error comes from r4, even though this value
Ra is very small.
r3 r4
R1
r2
Rx

r1
Kelvin Double Bridge: 1 to 0.00001

l 2 ratio arms: R1-R2 and Ra-Rb


R2 R3 the connecting lead between m and n: yoke
I m
The balance conditions: Vlk = Vlmp or Vok = Vonp
Rb
p R2
V k G Ry Vlk V (1)
R1 R2
Ra
here V IR lo I[R3 Rx (Ra Rb ) // Ry ]
n
R1
Rx Ry
o Vlmp I R3 Rb (2)
Ra Rb R y

R1 RbRy R1 Ra R1
Rx R3 Rx R3
R 2 Ra Rb Ry R2 Rb

Eq. (1) = (2) and rearrange:
R2

If we set R1/R2 = Ra/Rb, the second term of the right hand side will be zero, the relation
reduce to the well known relation. In summary, The resistance of the yoke has no effect
on the measurement, if the two sets of ratio arms have equal resistance ratios.
High Resistance Measurement

Guard ring technique: Volume resistance, R V


Surface leakage resistance, Rs

Guard
ring
A A
Is Is
High Iv Iv
High
voltage V voltage V Material
supply supply under test
Is

(a) Circuit that measures insulation volume (b) Use of guard ring to measure only volume
resistance in parallel with surface leakage resistance
resistance
V V
Rmeas Rs // Rv Rmeas Rv
I s Iv I v
High Resistance Measurement

Example The Insulation of a metal-sheath electrical cable is tested using 10,000 V supply
and a microammeter. A current of 5 A is measured when the components are connected
without guard wire. When the circuit is connect with guard wire, the current is 1.5 A.
Calculate (a) the volume resistance of the cable insulation and (b) the surface leakage
resistance
SOLUTION
(a ) Volume resistance:

IV =1.5 A
V 10000 V
RV 6.7 109
IV 1.5 A

(b ) Surface leakage resistance:

IV+ IS = 5 A IS = 5 A IV = 3.5A

V 10000 V
RS 2.9109
IS 3.5 A
MegaOhm Bridge

Just as low-resistance measurements are affected by series lead impedance, high-


resistance measurements are affected by shunt-leakage resistance.

RA RB RA RB

E G E R2
G

R1
RC Rx RC

the guard terminal is connect to a bridge


corner such that the leakage resistances
are placed across bridge arm with low
resistances
R1 // RC RC RC
since R1 >> RC Rx R A
R2 // Rg Rg RB
since R2 >> Rg
Capacitor
Capacitance the ability of a dielectric to store electrical charge per
unit voltage
Area, A
conductor
A0 r

Dielectric, r C Typical values pF, nF or F
thickness, d d

Dielectric Construction Capacitance Breakdown,V


Air Meshed plates 10-400 pF 100 (0.02-in air gap)
Ceramic Tubular 0.5-1600 pF 500-20,000
Disk 1pF to 1 F
Electrolytic Aluminum 1-6800 F 10-450
Tantalum 0.047 to 330 F 6-50
Mica Stacked sheets 10-5000 pF 500-20,000
Paper Rolled foil 0.001-1 F 200-1,600
Plastic film Foil or Metallized 100 pF to 100 F 50-600
Inductor
Inductance the ability of a conductor to produce induced voltage
when the current varies.
N turns
o rN 2
A
L
A l

l o = 410-7 H/m

r relative permeability of core material Air core inductor


Ni ferrite: r > 200
Mn ferrite: r > 2,000

L Re

Cd Iron core inductor


Equivalent circuit of an RF coil Distributed capacitance Cd
between turns
Quality Factor of Inductor and Capacitor
Equivalent circuit of capacitance
Cp
Cs Rs
Rp

Parallel equivalent circuit Series equivalent circuit

Equivalent circuit of Inductance


Lp
Ls Rs

Rp

Series equivalent circuit Parallel equivalent circuit

Rss2 X 2
Rs2 X 2 R pX 2p X p R p2
Rp X p s Rs 2 Xs 2
Rs Xs R X2 R X2
p p p p
Quality Factor of Inductor and Capacitor
Quality factor of a coil: the ratio of reactance to resistance (frequency
dependent and circuit configuration)
X s Ls Typical Q ~ 5 1000
Inductance series circuit: Q
Rs Rs
R Rp
Inductance parallel circuit: Q p
X p Lp

Dissipation factor of a capacitor: the ratio of reactance to resistance


(frequency dependent and circuit configuration)
Xp 1
Capacitance parallel circuit: D Typical D ~ 10-4 0.1
R p C p R p
Rs
Capacitance series circuit: D Cs R s
Xs
Inductor and Capacitor
I V
R2 V RS2 2L2S
LS 2 L2 P2
P
LP LS
RP L P LP 2L2 S
RS LS
L 2 2
I RS2 2L2S
RS P2 RP RP RP RS
RP L2 2 P RS2

V V/RP
LS Q
RP
Q ILS LP
RS V/L P

IRS I

I V
1 C R
2 2 2 V
CS C P
P P 1
C PR P
2 2 2 CP C S
CP 1 2C S2R S2
I RS LS
1
RS RP RP

1 2C 2S R2
1 2C P2R P2 RP S
RS
IRS I 2C S2R S2
I/CS VCP
D CS R S 1
D
CPRP
V V/RP
AC Bridge: Balance Condition
B
all four arms are considered as impedance
Z1 Z2 (frequency dependent components)
The detector is an ac responding device:
I1 I2
headphone, ac meter
V A D C Source: an ac voltage at desired frequency

Z1, Z2, Z3 and Z4 are the impedance of bridge arms


Z3 Z4
At balance point: EBA = E BC or I 1Z1 = I 2Z 2
D
V V
I1 = and I 2 =
General Form of the ac Bridge Z1 + Z3 Z2 + Z 4

Complex Form: Z1Z4 = Z2 Z3

Polar Form: Z1Z4 =Z2Z3


Magnitude balance:
Z1Z4 1 4 =Z2 Z3 2 3
Phase balance: 1 4 =2 3
Example The impedance of the basic ac bridge are given as follows:
Z1 100 80o (inductiveimpedance) Z3 400 30o (inductiveimpedance)
Z2 250 (pureresistance) Z4 unknown
Determine the constants of the unknown arm.

SOLUTION The first condition for bridge balance requires that


Z 2 Z 3 250 400
Z4 1,000
Z1 100

The second condition for bridge balance requires that the sum of the phase angles of
opposite arms be equal, therefore
4 =2 3 1 0 30 80 50 o

Hence the unknown impedance Z4 can be written in polar form as


Z4 1,000 50 o

Indicating that we are dealing with a capacitive element, possibly consisting of a


series combination of at resistor and a capacitor.
Example an ac bridge is in balance with the following constants: arm AB, R = 200
in series with L = 15.9 mH R; arm BC, R = 300 in series with C = 0.265 F; arm CD,
unknown; arm DA, = 450 . The oscillator frequency is 1 kHz. Find the constants of
arm CD. B
SOLUTION
Z1 Z2

I1 I2 Z1 R j L 200 j100
V
D C Z 2 R 1/ jC 300 j600
A
Z3 R 450
Z4 unknown
Z3 Z4

D
The general equation for bridge balance states that Z1Z4 = Z2 Z3

Z2 Z3 450 (200 j100)


Z4 = j150
Z1 (300 j600)

This result indicates that Z4 is a pure inductance with an inductive reactance of 150
at at frequency of 1kHz. Since the inductive reactance XL = 2fL, we solve for L
and obtain L = 23.9 mH
Comparison Bridge: Capacitance

Measure an unknown inductance or


R1 capacitance by comparing with it with a known
R2
inductance or capacitance.

Vs D At balance point: Z1Zx = Z2Z3


C3 Rx 1
where Z =R 1; Z 2 = R2; and Z3 R3
jC3
1
R3 Cx Unknown
capacitance 1 1
R1 Rx R2 3
R
Diagram of Capacitance j C x j C 3
Comparison Bridge
R2 R3 R1
Separation of the real and imaginary terms yields: Rx and Cx C3
R1 R2

Frequency independent
To satisfy both balance conditions, the bridge must contain two variable
elements in its configuration.
Comparison Bridge: Inductance

Measure an unknown inductance or


R1 R2 capacitance by comparing with it with a known
inductance or capacitance.

Vs D At balance point: Z1Zx = Z2Z3


L3 Lx where Z =R 1; Z 2 = R2; and Z3 R3 j L3
1
R3 Rx Unknown
inductance
R1 Rx j Lx R2 RS jLS
Diagram of Inductance
Comparison Bridge
R2 R3 R2
Separation of the real and imaginary terms yields: Rx and Lx L3
R1 R1

Frequency independent
To satisfy both balance conditions, the bridge must contain two variable
elements in its configuration.
Maxwell Bridge

Measure an unknown inductance in terms of


R1
R2 a known capacitance
C1
V D At balance point: Zx = Z2Z3Y1

Lx where Z 2 = R2 ; Z 3 R3; and Y =1 1 jC 1


R3 R1
Unknown
Rx inductance 1
Z x = Rx j Lx R2R 3 jC 1
Diagram of Maxwell Bridge R1
RR
Separation of the real and imaginary terms yields: Rx 2 3 and Lx R2R3C1
R1

Frequency independent
Suitable for Medium Q coil (1-10), impractical for high Q coil: since R1 will be very
large.
Hay Bridge

R1 Similar to Maxwell bridge: but R1 series with C1


R2 At balance point: Z1Zx = Z2 Z3
C1
V D j
where Z 1 = R1 ; Z2 R2; and Z3 R3
Lx C1
R3 Unknown 1
Rx inductance 1
R R x j Lx R 2R
jC1
3

Diagram of Hay Bridge L
R1Rx x R2 R3 (1)
Lx jR C1
which expands to R1Rx x j Lx R1 R2R3
C1 C1 Rx
Lx R1 (2)
C1
Solve the above equations simultaneously
Hay Bridge: continues

Rx
2 2
C1 R1R 2R 3 Lx
R2R3C1
1 2C12R 12
and 1 2C12R 12

Lx Z R1 X L Lx
C tan L Q
R Rx
XC 1
tan C
R C1R1
L 1
Rx Z tan L tan C or Q
C1 C1R1
Phasor diagram of arm 4 and 1
R2R3C1
Lx
Thus, Lx can be rewritten as 1 (1/ Q2 )

For high Q coil (> 10), the term (1/Q)2 can be neglected Lx R2R3C1
Schering Bridge

C1 Used extensively for the measurement of capacitance


R2 and the quality of capacitor in term of D
R1 Z x = Z 2Z Y
At balance point: 3 1
V D 1 1
where Z2 = R2; Z3 ; and Y = jC
jC3
1
R1
Cx
C3
Unknown j j 1
Rx
capacitance Rx R2 jC1
C x C x R1
Diagram of Schering Bridge
j RC jR2
which expands to Rx 2 1
C x C3 C3R1
C1 R1
Separation of the real and imaginary terms yields: Rx R2 and Cx C3
C3 R2
Schering Bridge: continues

Rx
Dissipation factor of a series RC circuit: D RC
x x
Xx
Dissipation factor tells us about the quality of a capacitor, how close the
phase angle of the capacitor is to the ideal value of 90o

For Schering Bridge: D RxCx R1C1

For Schering Bridge, R1 is a fixed value, the dial of C1 can be calibrated directly in D
at one particular frequency
Wien Bridge

Unknown R1 Measure frequency of the voltage source using series


Freq. R2 RC in one arm and parallel RC in the adjoining arm
C1
At balance point: Z2 Z1Z4Y3
Vs D 1 1
Z1 R1 ; Z 2 R2 ; Y3 jC 3; and Z 4 R4
R3 jC1 R3
R4
C3 j 1

R2 R1 R
C1 4 R3 3
j C

Diagram of Wien Bridge
R2 R1 C3
(1)
R1R4 jR4 RC R4 R3 C1
which expands to R2 jC3 R1R4 4 3
R3 C1R3 C1 1 (2)
C3R1
C1R3
1
Rearrange Eq. (2) gives f In most, Wien Bridge, R1 = R3 and C1 = C3
2 C1C3R1R3 1
(1) R2 2R4 (2) f
2 RC
Wagner Ground Connection
One way to control stray capacitances is by
C
C6 Shielding the arms, reduce the effect of stray
C5 R1 capacitances but cannot eliminate them
Rw R2 completely.

1 Stray across arm


A D B Cannot eliminate
2 C1 C2

Cw C3 Rx
Wagner ground connection eliminates some
R3 Cx effects of stray capacitances in a bridge circuit
D Simultaneous balance of both bridge makes the
Wagner ground C4 point 1 and 2 at the ground potential. (short C1
and C2 to ground, C4 and C5 are eliminated from
detector circuit)
Diagram of Wagner ground The capacitance across the bridge arms e.g. C 6
cannot be eliminated by Wagner ground.
Capacitor Values
Ceramic Capacitor
Capacitor Values
Film Capacitor
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Chip Capacitor
Capacitor Values
Tantalum Capacitor
Capacitor Values
Chip Capacitor

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