P1X Dynamics & Relativity:

Newton & Einstein

Part I - I frame no hypotheses;
for whatever is not deduced from
Dynamics READ the
textbook!
the phenomena is to be called a
section numbers hypothesis; and hypotheses,
in syllabus
Motion whether metaphysical or physical,
whether of occult qualities or
Forces Newtons Laws
mechanical, have no place in
Simple Harmonic Motion experimental philosophy.
Circular Motion

http://ppewww.ph.gla.ac.uk/~parkes/teaching/Dynamics/Dynamics.html Chris Parkes

October 2007
 Motion x e.g
Position [m] dx
Velocity [ms-1]
Rate of change of position 0
dx t
v v
dt
dt
Acceleration [ms-2]
Rate of change of velocity
dv d 2 x 0
a 2 t
dt dt
a

0
 Equations of motion in 1D
Initially (t=0) at x0
Initial velocity u,
acceleration a,
s=ut+1/2 at2,
where s is displacement from
x x0 ut at 1
2
2
initial position
Differentiate w.r.t. time: v=u+at
dx v 2 (u at ) 2 u 2 2uat a 2t 2
v u at
dt v 2 u 2 2a(ut 12 at 2 )
2 v2=u2+2 as
d x
2
aa
dt
 2D motion: vector quantities
Scalar: 1 number
Position is a vector
Vector: magnitude & direction,
r, (x,y) or (r, ) >1 number
Cartesian or
cylindrical polar co- Y
ordinates
For 3D would specify
z also
Right angle triangle r
y
x=r cos , y=r sin 0 x
X
r2=x2+y2, tan = y/x
 vector addition
c=a+b
y
cx= ax +bx b
cy= ay +by
a c
can use unit vectors i,j
i vector length 1 in x direction
x
j vector length 1 in y direction
scalar product a

finding the angle between two vectors
b
a b ab cos a x bx a y by a,b, lengths of a,b
Result is a scalar
a b a xbx a y by
cos
ab a x a y bx by
2 2 2 2
 Vector product
e.g. Find a vector perpendicular to two vectors
c ab
c a b sin
i j k a y bz a z by

c a b ax ay a z a z bx a xbz
bx by bz a xby a y bx

c
Right-handed
Co-ordinate system b

a
 Velocity and acceleration vectors
Position changes with time
Rate of change of r is Y
velocity
How much is the change in a
very small amount of time t

d r r (t t ) r (t ) r(t)
v Limit at t0 r(t+t)
dt t
dx dy 0 x
vx , vy X
dt dt
d v v(t t ) v(t ) d 2 r
a 2
dt t dt
dv x dv y
ax , ay
dt dt
 Projectiles
Motion of a thrown / fired
object mass m under gravity
Velocity components:
y v
vx=v cos
x,y,t
vy=v sin
Force: -mg in y direction
x
acceleration: -g in y direction
x direction y direction
a: ax=0 ay=-g
v=u+at: vx=vcos + axt = vcos vy=vsin - gt
s=ut+0.5at2: x=(vcos )t y= vtsin -0.5gt2

This describes the motion, now we can use it to solve problems

 Relative Velocity 1D
e.g. Alice walks forwards along a boat at 1m/s and the boat moves at 2m/s.
What is Alices velocity as seen by Bob ?
If Bob is on the boat it is just 1 m/s
If Bob is on the shore it is 1+2=3m/s
If Bob is on a boat passing in the opposite direction.. and the earth is
spinning
Velocity relative to an observer

Relative Velocity 2D
e.g. Alice walks across the boat at 1m/s.
As seen on the shore: V boat 2m/s
V Alice 1m/s
V
V 1 2 5m / s relative to shore
2 2

tan 1 / 2, 27
 Changing co-ordinate system
Define the frame of reference the co-ordinate system
in which you are measuring the relative motion.
y (x,y) Frame S
(boat) v boat w.r.t shore
Frame S
(shore)
vt x

x
Equations for (stationary) Alices position on boat w.r.t shore
i.e. the co-ordinate transformation from frame S to S
Assuming S and S coincide at t=0 :
x x'vt Known as Gallilean transformations
As we will see, these simple relations do not hold in
y y' special relativity
We described the motion, position, velocity, acceleration,
now look at the underlying causes
Newtons laws
First Law
A body continues in a state of rest or uniform
motion unless there are forces acting on it.
No external force means no change in velocity
Second Law
A net force F acting on a body of mass m [kg]
produces an acceleration a = F /m [ms-2]
Relates motion to its cause

F = ma units of F: kg.m.s-2, called Newtons [N]

 Third Law
The force exerted by A on B is equal and opposite to
the force exerted by B on A
Fb
Force exerted by
Block on table block on table is Fa

Fa=-Fb Weight Fa Force exerted by

table on block is Fb
(a Force)
(Both equal to weight)

Examples of Forces
weight of body from gravity (mg),
- remember m is the mass, mg is the force (weight)
tension, compression
Friction,
 Force Components
Force is a Vector F1
R
Resultant from vector sum
F2
R F1 F2
Resolve into perpendicular components
Fx F cos
Fy F sin Fy

F

F x Fxi Fx

F y Fy j
 Free Body Diagram
Apply Newtons laws to particular body
Only forces acting on the body matter
Net Force F
Separate problem into each body

e.g.

Body 1
Supporting Force Body 2
from plane Tension Tension in rope
(normal
force) In rope

Block Weight
Friction Block weight
 Tension & Compression
Tension
Pulling force - flexible or rigid
String, rope, chain and bars
mg
Compression
Pushing force mg
Bars mg

Tension & compression act in BOTH

directions.
Imagine string cut
Two equal & opposite forces the tension
 Friction
A contact force resisting sliding
Origin is chemical forces between atoms in the two
surfaces.
Static Friction (fs)
Must be overcome before an objects starts to move
Kinetic Friction (fk)
The resisting force once sliding has started
does not depend on speed
fs s N
N
fs or fk F
fk k N
mg
 Simple Harmonic Motion
Oscillating system that can be described by sinusoidal function
Pendulum, mass on a spring, electromagnetic waves (E&B fields)

Occurs for any system with Linear restoring Force

F k x Same form as Hookes law
d2x k
Hence Newtons 2nd F ma 2 x
dt m
Satisfied by sinusoidal expression
x A sin t or x A cos t A is the oscillation amplitude
is the angular frequency

Substitute in to find
dx d 2x
x A sin t A cos t 2 A 2 sin t
dt dt
k k Frequencyf Period T 1

2
in radians/sec Hz, cycles/sec 2 Sec for 1 cycle f
m m
 SHM General Form

x A sin( t )
Phase
(offset of sine wave
in time)
Displacement
Oscillation frequency
A is the oscillation amplitude
2f
- Maximum displacement
f 1/ T
 SHM Examples
1) Mass on a spring
Let weight hang on spring
Pull down by distance x
L Let go!
Restoring Force F=-kx
In equilibrium x
k
F=-kL=mg
m

Energy: K .E. 12 mv2 (assuming spring has negligible mass)

U 12 kx2 potential energy of spring
But total energy conserved
At maximum 2of oscillation, when x=A and v=0
Total E 12 kA Similarly, for all SHM (Q. : pendulum energy?)
SHM Examples 2) Simple Pendulum
Mass on a string
Working along swing: F mg sin
L Not actually SHM, proportional to sin, not
but if is small sin x
l
F mg sin mg Lx
x
c.f. this with F=-kx on previous slide
mg sin Hence, Newton 2: d 2x g
2
x
dt l
mg and Angular frequency for
g
simple pendulum,
l
small deflection
 360o = 2 radians
Circular Motion 180o = radians
90o = /2 radians
Rotate in circle with constant angular speed
R radius of circle
s distance moved along circumference R s
y
=t, angle (radians) = s/R =t
Co-ordinates x t=0
x= R cos = R cos t
y= R sin = R sin t d
v x ( R cos t ) R sin t
Velocity dt
d
v y ( R sin t ) R cos t
Acceleration dt
d d N.B. similarity
a x (v x ) ( R sin t ) R 2 cos t
dt dt with S.H.M eqn
d d 1D projection of a
a y (v y ) ( R cos wt ) R 2 sin t
dt dt circle is SHM
 Magnitude and direction of motion
Velocity v 2 vx v y R 2 w2 sin 2 t R 2 2 cos 2 t 2 R 2
2 2

v=R vy cos t 1
tan
And direction of velocity vector v vx sin t tan
Is tangential to the circle 90o v

Acceleration a
a ax a y
2 2 2

R 2 w4 cos 2 t R 2 4 sin 2 t 4 R 2
a= 2R=(R)2/R=v2/R
a x 2 x
And direction of acceleration vector a
a y 2 y
a= -2r Acceleration is towards centre of circle
 Force towards centre of circle
Particle is accelerating
So must be a Force
Accelerating towards centre of circle
So force is towards centre of circle
F=ma= mv2/R in direction r 2
v
or using unit vector F m r
r
Examples of central Force
1. Tension in a rope
2. Banked Corner
3. Gravity acting on a satellite
 Myth of Newton & apple.
Gravitational Force He realised gravity is universal
same for planets and apples
Any two masses m1,m2 attract each other
with a gravitational force: F
F
m1m2
F G 2 r
m2
r m1
Newtons law of Gravity
Inverse square law 1/r2, r distance between masses
The gravitational constant G = 6.67 x 10-11 Nm2/kg2
Explains motion of planets, moons and tides
m m Gm m =5.97x10 24kg,
Gravity on F G E 2 E
2
m E
RE=6378km
earths surface RE RE Mass, radius of earth
GmE 2
Or F mg Hence, g 2
9.81ms
RE
N.B. general solution is an ellipse not a circle - planets travel in ellipses around sun

Satellites
Centripetal Force provided by Gravity
Mm mv2 m
F G 2 R
R R
M M
v G
2 M
R
v G
R
Distance in one revolution s = 2R, in time period T, v=s/T
R
T 2R / v 2R T2R3 , Keplers 3rd Law
GM
Special case of satellites Geostationary orbit
Stay above same point on earth T=24 hours
3
R2
24 60 60 2
GM E
R 42,000km
 Dynamics I Key Points
1. 1D motion, 2D motion as vectors
s=ut+1/2 at2 v=u+at v2=u2+2 as
Projectiles, 2D motion analysed in
components
2. Newtons laws
F = ma
Action & reaction
3. SHM Oscillating system that can be described by sinusoidal function

F k x x A sin( t )
4. Circular motion (R,)
2
v
F m r Force towards centre of circle
r