Welding

230 kV
Aluminum
Welded
Bus Pipe
Elbows

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Welded Linkage
Material: Steel
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Welded Axleshaft
Material: 303 Stainless

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Welded Tractor Linkage
Material: Steel-Zinc Plated
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Laser welded products - Omega

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Metalor : Welded products
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Welding of military products
Expand your business to include the
welding of military products by
gaining certification to DIN 2303.
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Tranter, Inc. Supermax- The Tranter, Inc. Supermax shell and
plate heat exchanger is designed for pressures to 70barg
(1,015 psig) and at temperatures up to 537C (1,000F) for
standard range units.
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 Joining

Mechanical Atomic bonding

Liquid Solid/Liquid
Solid
Permanent phase Phase
Temporary phase
Screw
Electric Brazing Adhesive
Diffusion
Rivet Staples welding Chemical bonding
Shrink Friction Soldering
Stitches
Fit welding Hot forge
Cold welding Gas Thermit
welding welding welding

Arc Induction Resistance

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 Weld ability
Metals capability to be welded
Into specific structure
With certain specific properties and characteristics
Material characteristics to get welded
Alloying elements
Impurities
Inclusions
Grain structure
Processing history of base material
Filler material etc.
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 Weld ability
Other factors
Strength
Toughness
Ductility
Notch sensitivity
Elastic modulus
Specific heat
Melting point
Thermal expansion
Surface tension characteristics of molten metal
Corrosion etc
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 Weld ability of some materials
S.No. Metal/ Alloy Welding condition
1. Aluminium alloy Weld able at high rate of heat input
Alloys containing zinc or copper are not weld able
2. Cast iron Weld able
3. Copper alloys Similar as aluminium alloys
4. Lead Weld able
5. Magnesium Weld able with the use of protective shielding gas
alloys and fluxes
6. Molybdenum Weld able under well-controlled conditions
7. Nickel alloys Weld able
8. Niobium Weld able under well controlled conditions
(columbium)
9. Stainless steels Weld able
10. Steel, Weld ability adversely affected by the presence of
galvanized and zinc coating and lubricant layer
pre-lubricated
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 Weld ability of some materials
S.No. Metal/ Alloy Welding condition
11. Steels, high- Weld able under well controlled conditions
alloy
12. Steels, low-alloy Fair to good Weld ability
13. Steel, plain (a) Excellent Weld ability for low-carbon steels
carbon (b) Fair to good weld ability for medium carbon
steel
(c) Poor weld ability for high carbon steels
14. Tantalum Weld able under well controlled conditions
15. Tin Weld able
16. Titanium alloy Weld able with the use of proper shielding gases
17. Tungsten Weld able under well controlled conditions
18. Zinc Difficult to weld
19. Zirconium Weld able with the use of proper shielding gases

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 Welding
Solid phase
Liquid phase
Solid/Liquid phase

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 Principles of solid phase
welding
In a single crystal

Strength Where
c = (E/d) E = modulus of elasticity
(in ductile material) = work done to create
cleavage along a
c = (E/l) crystallographic
plane
Movement of dislocation
d = lattice spacing in the
results plastic cleavage plane
deformation l = length of crack >> d

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 Atomic bonding > bulk strength
Good welding need not achieve strength
of lattice plane
When two area brought in contact
Real contact takes place
But through a small area

Metallic bridging occurs

Between adsorbed surfaces
True grain boundaries are formed
Stronger than the bulk material (due to formation of
grain boundaries)
Some work hardening takes place near matting
surfaces
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continued
Let
y = yield strength of the material
Pc = force applied
Hence, fraction of contact area = Pc / y
Experimentally
Fraction of contact area in the weld = 2 Pc / y
Softer metal has better permanent adherence
Difficult to measure actual surface deformation taken place
However, surface deformation = 100(ti-tf)/t i%
= 100(di-df)/di %
where,
ti,di,tf & df = initial thickness/diameter and final thickness/diameter
of the sheet.

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 Weld strength increases with increase in
bulk deformation
No weldment below a critical deformation
Amount of deformation necessary to
obtain a specific strength decreases with
increase in temperature
Only 10% deformation can be obtained if
temperature is close to melting of material
Ratio of hardness of oxide : material
effects the necessary deformation
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 Oxide layer :hinder solid phase
Oil films : welding
Oxide layer
Hard
Brittle
Fractures when load is applied
Removed by scratch brushing in cold welding
Oil films - Removed by heating in hot welding

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 Electrical

Solid
State Chemical
Welding
Pressure

Mechanical

Pressure &
Cold Weld
Deformation

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 Solid phase welding at room
temperature (cold welding)
No re-crystallization
No grain growth at interface
Reduces ductility
Diffusion occurs during solid phase welding
Working temperature of the weldment increases
Increase in working temperature increases
Ductility
Eliminates some other defects

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 Solid-State Welding Processes
Joining takes place without fusion at the interface
No liquid or molten phase is present at the joint
Two surfaces brought together under pressure
For strong bond, both surfaces must be clean:
No oxide films
No residues
No metalworking fluids
No adsorbed layers of gas
No other contaminants

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 Solid State Bonding
Involves one or more of:
Diffusion: the transfer of atoms across an interface
Facilitated by heat
Friction
Electrical-resistance
Induction
Pressure:
The higher the pressure, the stronger the interface
May combine pressure & resistance heating
Relative interfacial movements
Create clean surfaces
Even small amplitudes improve bond strength
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 Cold Welding
Pressure is applied to the work pieces
through dies or rolls
Plastic deformation
Requires at least one (preferably both)
mating parts be ductile
Prepare surfaces by pre-cleaning
Best bond strength occurs with two similar
materials

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Characteristics of Cold Welding
At least one of the metals must be ductile
without excessive work-hardening.
Total absence of applied heating.
Dissimilar metals can be joined.
Surface preparation is important.

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 Cold Welding Process
Description
Dies
The parts to be welded
are first cleaned.
A short section of the Work-piece Work-piece
part is sheared.
The parts are clamped in Before welding
a die with some initial
extension.
A forging force is applied
After welding
to complete welding.

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 Applications of Cold Welding
Cold welded butt joints are used in the
manufacturing of aluminum, copper, gold,
silver, and platinum wire.
Most commonly, successive reels of wire
are joined for continuous drawing to a
smaller diameter.
Aluminum alloys used in cold welding
include: 1100, 2319, 3003, all 5000
series, 6061 and 6201.
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Single Upset Cold Weld in States of Upset During Butt
Type 1100 Aluminum Wire Cold Welding

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 Can Effect Joint Efficiency

Transverse Flow Lines in

a Cold Welded Butt Joint
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Examples of solid phase
welding

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Cold welded pinched copper tubes
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Solid phase welding equipment 38
Cold welding of wires 39
Pneumatic pinched-off tool

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Hydraulic pinched-off tool

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 Electrical

Flame Pressure & Pressure

Contact Deformation Gas Weld
Solid
State Chemical
Welding

Mechanical

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Solid phase welding at elevated
temperature
Forge welding
Parts heated in a furnace
Hammered to weld
Pressure is applied by rolls in tubes

Butt welding
Clean the surfaces to be contact
Parts are kept in contact
Heated by passing current
Axially compressed
Lateral flow of surface, oxides etc
50% bulk deformation
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 Pressure Gas Welding
Processes

Open joint pressure welding.

Closed joint pressure welding.

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Pressure Gas Welding Principles of
Operation: Open Joint Method
The faces to be joined
are heated
individually to the Work pieces are heated separately
welding temperature.
After heating, the two
faces are brought into Upsetting
force
contact.
Upsetting force is
Final weld
applied to complete
welding.
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Pressure Gas Welding Principles of
Operation: Closed Joint Method
Faces to be welded
are butted together
under initial pressure.
Metal at the joint is Work piece Work piece
Upsetting
heated to welding force
Upsetting
force
temperature with a
gas flame. Before welding
Finally, the metal is
upset sufficiently to
produce a weld. Final weld
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GAS WELDING

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 Oxy fuel gas welding (OFW)
Most common gas welding process uses acetylene :
Commonly known as oxyacetylene gas welding (OAW)
At inner core of the flame (Primary combustion)
C2H2 + O2 2 CO + H2 + Heat
Heat produced is one third of the total heat
Secondary combustion
2CO + H2 + 1.5 O2 2CO + H2O + Heat
Produces two third of the total heat
Temperature developed can reach up to 3575 K
Amount of heat liberated = 1.275 x106 kJ/kg-mole
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 Types of flames
Neutral flame
Temperature at inner core 3315 to 3575 K

Oxidizing flame
Small and narrow outer envelop

Reducing (carburizing) flame

Acetylene feather
Blue envelop
Bright luminous inner

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 Applications of Pressure Gas
Welding
Pressure gas welding has been successfully
applied to
Plain carbon steels
low carbon steels,
high alloy steels, and to
several non-ferrous metals
including nickel-copper and
copper-silicon alloys.

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 Resistance welding
No consumable electrode
No shielding gas
No flux
Total resistance is the sum of the following
components
1. Resistance of the electrodes
2. Electrode-workpiece contact resistance
3. Resistances of the individual parts to be welded
4. Workpiece-workpiece contact resistances (faying
surfaces)
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 Resistance welding

Heat generated is Where

given by H = Heat generated
I = Current
H = I2Rt R = Resistance
There is heat t = Time of current flow
losses due through K = a factor
representing the
radiation and losses
conduction. Hence, <1
H = KI2Rt
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 Butt welding Flush welding
Objects

Objects
P P

Before welding

AC power supply

After welding

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Flash solid phase welding 55
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Use of power hammer 58
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Forge welded glove valve 60
Forge welded wheel
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Solid phase welding
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 Friction welding
Parts are kept in contact
Heat by relative motion
Axial force is applied
After welding both parts are rotated a
constant speed till they stop
Limitation - Parts should have rotation
symmetry

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Friction welding machine
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Friction welding. Pressure 60 tonnes

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 Friction welding
process bears no
resemblance to
conventional welding as
no filler material is
involved. Instead, two
components are rubbed
together at a controlled
rotational speed
creating the friction and
heat that allows both
components to reach a
plastic state and be
forged together forming
the bond.
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Analysis of welding joint

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 Oxy fuel gas welding

Most common gas welding process uses

acetylene :
At inner core of the flame (Primary combustion)
C2H2 + O2 2 CO + H2 + Heat
Heat produced is one third of the total heat

Secondary combustion
2CO + H2 + 1.5 O2 2CO + H2O + Heat
Produces two third of the total heat
Temperature developed can reach up to 3575 K
Amount of heat liberated = 1.275 x106 kJ/kg-mole

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 Resistance welding

Heat generated is Where

given by H = Heat generated
I = Current
H = I2Rt R = Resistance
There is heat t = Time of current flow
losses due through K = a factor
representing the
radiation and losses
conduction. Hence, <1
H = KI2Rt
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 Problem
Two rods of 7075 aluminium alloy, 50 mm
diameter each, are joined through pressure
welding process. The rods were heated through
resistance heating. The power supply was 10 V.
Compute the time to flow current 50 A, so that
metal up to 1 mm thick may be flushed out from
each rod. Assume the efficiency of the process
as 60% and specific energy required by the
alloy to weld is 2.5 J/mm3. (Ans. 32.7 s)

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 solution
Energy required = total volume x specific energy (u)
= (/4) x diameter2 x 2 x thickness of metal to flow x u
= (/4) x 2 x 502 x 1 x 2.5
Energy obtained = efficiency x voltage x ampere x time
= 0.6 x 10 x 50 x t
Energy required = Energy obtained
Time = 32.7 s

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Thanks

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