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Introduction
A data acquisition system consists of many components
that are integrated to:
Examples:
Temperature
Pressure
Light
Force
Sensor and transducer
Sensor' is `a device that detects a change in a physical stimulus
and turns it into a signal which can be measured or recorded.
E.g. : Thermistor
As a comparison
Sensor' for the sensing element itself and 'transducer' for the
sensing element plus any associated circuitry. All transducers
would thus contain a sensor and most (not all) sensors would
also be transducers.
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Definition of a transducer
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Functions of transducer
1. To sense the presence, magnitude, change in, and frequency
of some measurand.
Measurand
Transducer Electrical
output
Excitation
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Selecting a transducers
1. Operating range
2. Sensitivity
3. Frequency response and resonant frequency
4. Environmental compatibility -
5. Minimum sensitivity measurand.
6. Accuracy
7. Usage and ruggedness
8. Electrical parameter
10
Classification of transducers
Transducer can be classified according to their application,
based primarily on the physical quantity, property, or
condition that is measured.
The transducer can be categories into:
A) Passive transducer:
- requires an external power
- output is a measure of some variation, such resistance and
capacitance. E.g. : condenser microphone
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1) Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)
Detectors of wire resistance temperature common employ platinum,
nickel or resistance wire elements, whose resistance variation with
temperature has high intrinsic accuracy. They are available in many
configurations and size and as shielded or open units for both
immersion and surface applications.
The relationship between temperature and resistance of conductors can
be calculated from the equation:
R R0 (1 T )
where
R = the resistance of the conductor at temperature t (0C)
R0 = the resistance at the reference temperature, usually
200C
= the temperature coefficient of resistance
T = the difference between the operating and the
reference temperature
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What is an RTD?
Due to electrical output (resistance change) it can be used with PLCs and
25
Contd
The emf of the thermocouple :
E = c(T1 T2) + k(T12 T22)
Where
c and k = constant of the thermocouple
materials
T1 = The temperature of the hot
junction
T2 = The temperature of the cold or
reference junction
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Types of thermocouples
There are about 4 to 5 types of thermocouples which are categorized based
on sensitivity and range.
J and K type thermocouples are noted for their high sensitivity. These
however, have a limited range. (about 41V/C for K and 55V/C)
Platinum Types: The B, S, T and R type of thermocouples are less sensitive
(about 10V/C) but they have a very significant advantage of high range.
They can measure large temperatures and are usually used in furnaces.
Thermocouple sensors
Sensitivity: It is the voltage or emf produced per degree Celsius rise or fall
in temperature at the junction.
Construction: Simply welded or twisted between 2 metals.
Range: Thermocouples have the greatest range in all types of temperature
measurement instrument domains.
Time Response: It is the time required by the thermocouple to reach
thermal equilibrium with the surrounding. Industrial TC using thick
wire have lower response of about 20s however, TCs of small gauge
wires have response time of about 20ms.
Signal conditioning: the output voltage from the thermocouples is
very small usually less then 50 mV. Thus considerable amplification is
required so as to be used for practical applications
3) Thermistor
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This figure shows
resistance versus
temperature for a
family thermistor.
The resistance value
marked at the bottom
end of each curve is a
value at 250C
Note!
The resistance
decreases as their
temperature rises-NTC
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Advantages of Thermistor
Small size and low cost
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Limitations of Thermistor
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LINEAR VARIABLE DIFFERENTIAL
TRANSFORMER (LVDT)
An iron core slides within the tube and therefore affects the magnet
coupling between the primary and the two secondaries. When the core is in
the centre, voltage induced in the two secondaries is equal. When the core
is moved in one direction from centre, the voltage induced in one winding
is increased and that in the other is decreased. Movement in the opposite
direction reverses this effect
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Cont..
38
Cont..
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L V D Ts
What is an LVDT?
An LVDT is a Linear Position Sensor
With a Proportional Analog Output
Captive Armature
Spring-extended Armature
Unguided Armature
Measured Object
Measured Motion
Elevation/Cross-Section View
Captive Armature
Measured Object
kA 0
C ( Farads)
d
where
k = dielectric constant
A = the area of the plate, in m2
o = 8.854 x 10-12 F/m
d = the plate placing in m
54
Contd
Forms of Capacitance Transducers
Rectilinear Capacitance
Rotary plate capacitor Transducer
Thin diaphragm
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Contd
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Contd
Rectilinear capacitance
transducer:
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Contd
Thin diaphragm:
A transducer that varies the
spacing between surfaces. The
dielectric is either air or vacuum.
Often used as Capacitance
microphones.
58
Contd
Advantages:
1. Has excellent frequency response
2. Can measure both static and dynamic phenomena.
Disadvantages:
1. Sensitivity to temperature variations
2. the possibility of erratic or distortion signals owing to
long lead length
Applications:
1. As frequency modulator in RF oscillator
2. In capacitance microphone
3. Use the capacitance transducer in an ac bridge circuit
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Inductive Transducer
Inductive transducers may be either of the self generating or
passive type. The self generating type utilises the basic
electrical generator principle, i.e, a motion between a
conductor and magnetic field induces a voltage in the
conductor (generator action). This relative motion between
the field and the conductor is supplied by changes in the
measurand.
1. Number of turns
2. Geometric configuration
3. Permeability of the magnetic material or magnetic circuits
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Strain Gauge
The strain gauge is an example of a passive transducer that
uses electric resistance variation in wires to sense the strain
produced by a force on wires. It is a very versatile detector
and transducer for measuring weight, pressure, mechanical
force, or displacement.
The construction of a bonded strain
gauge (see figure) shows a fine wire
element looped back and forth on a
mounting plate, which is usually
cemented to the member undergoing
stress. A tensile stress tends to
elongate the wire and thereby
increase its length and decrease its
cross-sectional area.
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The combined effect is an increase in resistance:
L
R
Where,
A
: the specific resistance of the conductor material in ohm meters
L : length of conductor (meters)
A : area of conductor (m2)
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R / R
K
L / L
Where
R / R
K
G
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From Hooke theory, stress, S, is defined as internal force/area.
F
S
A
Where
S= the stress in kilograms per square meter
F= the force in kilograms
A= area in square meters
Where,
S
E E= Young modules in kg per square meter
S= the stress in kilograms per square meter
G G= the strain (no units)
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Metallic strain gauge formed from thin resistance
wire or etched from thin sheets of metal foil.
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Pyrometers
To measure temperature of a very hot body
Where thermometers cannot brought into contact or
Where hot bodies are moving
Pyrometers
Measurements done by measuring energy radiated by
a hot body or by comparison of colour
Wave length of thermal radiation-0.01 to 100 m
Black body radiation
Sefan- Boltzmanns law
Wb = T4
= 0.365(/)
- resitivity
Here detector temp > casting temp
Detector losses its temp. in all ways
If detector temp. finally settles to T2 & casting temp is
at T0 and target temp is T1
Ko (T2- T0 ) = K1 T1 4 = heat input
V= Kv T n
Fast
Large sensitivity
But limited spectral sensitivity
Lens for focusing targets
Uses selective materials to prevents absorption by them
1. Thallium iodide more suitable for high temp with
shorter emission
2. fused silica -High temp with shorter wavelength
b/w 250 to 1900 C
3. Pyrex
Sources of errors in pyrometers
Interleaving media has to be clear
Carbon dioxide, water vapour etc absorb selective bans
of wavelength
Emittance errors
Sensitive to obstruction
Advantages
Abitity to measure high temp
No need for contact
Fast response speed
High o/p
Moderate cost
disadvantages
Non linear scale
Emmisivity of target affect measurement
Errors due to interleaving media
Application
Can be used where life of thermocouple limits
Optical pyrometer
Optical pyrometer
Optical pyrometer
Range b/w 700 to 3000 oC
More accurate.
Lower limit determined by human eye
Human eye compares the radiation
Optical pyrometer- working
disappearing filament type
Radiation received by objective lens- focus on
filament- viewed through a microscope system-
filament appears in background.
red cadmium filters makes the radiation appear
momchromatic
Working
Working
At Bt = Bf milli ammeter gives a current proptional to
temperature
tungsten is used
Advantages
Flexible
Portable
Convient to use
Light weight
Can monitor moveable objects
Non contact type
accurate
Disadvantages
Expensive
Human error
Not useful for measuring temp of clear gas
At high temp. filament erodes frequently
Can also use double control pyrometers
Radiation pyrometer disappering filament
type
CONTENTS
Definition
History
Working
Characteristics
Types
Advantages
Disadvantages
Application
DEFINITION
A strain gauge is an example of passive transducer that
converts a mechanical displacement into a change of
resistance.
A strain gauge is a thin, wafer-like device that can be
attached to a variety of materials to measure applied strain.
HISTORY
A brief history of the Strain Gauge:
1856 : Lord Kelvin first reported on a relationship between
strain and the resistance of wire conductors.
Early 1930s : Charles Kearns made the first notable use of
bonded resistance strain gauges to measure vibratory
strains in high performance propeller blades.
1937/8 : Arthur Ruge discovered that small diameter wires
made of electrical resistance alloys could be bonded to a
structure to measure surface strain.
1952 : At this time, printed circuits were emerging, and
Saunders-Roe developed the idea of making a strain gauge
by etching the pattern for the gauge from a thin foil.
STRUCTURE
The majority of strain gauges are foil types, available in a
wide choice of shapes and sizes to suit a variety of
applications. They consist of a pattern of resistive foil
which is mounted on a backing material.
They operate on the principle that as the foil is subjected to
stress, the resistance of the foil changes in a defined way.
WORKING
The strain gauge is connected into a Wheatstone Bridge
circuit. The change in resistance is proportional to applied
strain and is measured with Wheatstone bridge.
WORKING
The sensitivity of a strain gauge is described in terms of a
characteristic called the gauge factor, defined as unit
change in resistance per unit change in length, or
K=1+2
TYPES
Based on principle of working :
Mechanical
Electrical
Piezoelectric
Based on mounting :
Bonded strain gauge
Unbonded strain gauge
TYPES
Based on construction :
Foil strain gauge
Semiconductor strain gauge
Photoelectric Strain gauge
MECHANICAL STRAIN GAUGE
It is made up of two separate plastic layers. The bottom
layer has a ruled scale on it and the top layer has a red
arrow or pointer. One layer is glued to one side of the crack
and one layer to the other. As the crack opens, the layers
slide very slowly past one another and the pointer moves
over the scale. The red crosshairs move on the scale as the
crack widens.
ELECTRICAL STRAIN GAUGE
When an electrical wire is
stretched within the limits
of its elasticity such that it
does not break or
permanently deform, it will
become narrower and
longer, changes that
increase its electrical
resistance end-to-end.
Strain can be inferred by
measuring change in
resistance.
PIEZOELECTRIC STRAIN GAUGE
Piezoelectric generate electric voltage when strain is
applied over it. Strain can be calculated from voltage.
Piezoelectric strain gauges are the most sensitive
and reliable devices.
BONDED STRAIN GAUGE
A bonded strain-gage element, consisting of a metallic
wire, etched foil, vacuum-deposited film, or
semiconductor bar, is cemented to the strained surface.
UNBONDED STRAIN GAUGE
The unbonded strain gage consists of a wire stretched
between two points in an insulating medium such as air.
One end of the wire is fixed and the other end is attached
to a movable element.
FOIL STRAIN GAUGE
The foil strain guage has metal foil photo-etched in a grid
pattern on the electric insulator of the thin resin and guage
leads attached,
SEMICONDUCTOR STRAIN GAUGE
For measurements of small strain, semiconductor strain
gauges, so called piezoresistors, are often preferred over foil
gauges. Semiconductor strain gauges depend on the
piezoresistive effects of silicon or germanium and measure
the change in resistance with stress as opposed to strain.
PHOTOELECTRIC STRAIN GAUGE
The photoelectric gauge uses a light beam, two fine
gratings, and a photocell detector to generate an electrical
current that is proportional to strain. The gage length of
these devices can be as short as 1/16 inch, but they are
costly and delicate.
STRAIN GAUGE
STRAIN GAUGE SELECTION CRITERIA:
Gauge Length
Number of Gauges in Gauge Pattern
Arrangement of Gauges in Gauge Pattern
Grid Resistance
temperature sensitivity
Carrier Material
Gauge Width
Availability
low cost
ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES
Advantages
There is no moving part.
It is small and inexpensive.
Disadvantages
It is non-linear.
It needs to be calibrated.
APPLICATIONS
Residual stress
Vibration measurement
Torque measurement
Bending and deflection measurement
Compression and tension measurement
Strain measurement
HANZHONG QUAN YUAN
MANUFACTURERS
INTEGRATED PROCESS SYSTEMS ELECTRONICS
GOLDBELL
SYSTEMS VISHAY PRECISION GROUP
MICRO MEASUREMENTS
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