Purpose of this Section of the Research Support Lab

Purpose of This RSL Part:

Make statistics fun!
Make you into a statistician!
Introduce you to basic concepts and procedures in descriptive and inferential
statistics
Prepare you for subsequent statistical courses

Overview of These RSL Parts:

Begins with methods for describing and summarizing single-variable
(frequency) distributions followed by methods for describing relationships
between two (or more) variables.
Then introduce probability theory as background for understanding
inferential statistics.
Methods are then presented for drawing inferences from research samples to
populations from which the samples were drawn.
Statistical tests covered include z-tests, t-tests, analysis of variance
(F-tests), and nonparametric tests

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 Textbook Credits

Textbook
Shavelson, R.J. (1996). Statistical reasoning for the behavioral
sciences (3rd Ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon.

Supplemental Material
Ruiz-Primo, M.A., Mitchell, M., & Shavelson, R.J. (1996).
Student guide for Shavelson statistical reasoning for the
behavioral sciences (3rd Ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon.

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 Statistical Software

Excel
MegaStat
Minitab
SPSS
JMP
POM/QM
StatCrunch

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 Research Defined
Research is doing ones damnedest to answer perplexing
questions
Or research is a systematic approach to finding answers to
questions
Scientific research, our focus, seeks answers to questions
empirically and by inference, ruling out counter-interpretations
to the one justified by the data
With the scientific method, problems are formulated,
hypotheses are identified, data are collected, inferences are
drawn about which hypothesis is more credible
The purpose of empirical research, therefore, is to provide
answers to questions about behavior using the scientific method

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 Statistics Defined
Statistics is the science of conducting studies to collect, organize,
summarize, analyze, and draw conclusions from data.
Descriptive statistics consists of:
the collection
Organization
Summarization
presentation of data
Inferential statistics consists of:
generalizing from samples to populations
performing estimations
hypothesis testing
determining relationships among variables
making predictions

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 Research Questions/Steps in Conducting Research
Research Questions
What is happening?
Is there a systematic (causal) effect?
Why or how is it happening (mechanism)?

Steps in Conducting Research

1. Identify and define a research problem
2. Formulate hypothesis based on theory, research, or both
3. Design the research
4. Conduct the research
5. Analyze the data
6. Interpret the data as they bear on the research question

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 Data Collection and Sampling Techniques
Surveys are the most common method of collecting data. Three
methods of surveying are:
Telephone surveys
Mailed questionnaire surveys
Personal interviews

Other methods include historical data gathering (empirical data)

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 Some Terminology
Variable: is a characteristic or attribute that can assume different values(height,
ability)
Data are the values that variables can assume.
Random variables have values that are determined by chance.
A population consists of all subjects that are being studied.
A sample is a group of subjects selected from a population.
Random samples are selected using chance methods or random methods.
Independent Variable(Factor/Treatment): A variable that is measured , manipulated
(type of instruction), or selected (e.g., sex) to determine its relationship to some other
observed variable.
Control Variable: A variable which is held constant (or is controlled) to neutralize its
effect on the dependent variable because it is not the focus of the study (e.g., control
on sex in a reading study)
Intervening Variable: A conceptual or theoretical variable that accounts for the
relation between independent and dependent variable; an explanation for the
relation or a hypothesized mechanism that accounts for the relation.
Dependent Variable(Response): A variable that is observed and measured to
determine its response to the independent variable (i.e., dependent on the
independent variable)

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 Measurement Scales
Nominalclassifies data into mutually exclusive (non-
overlapping), exhausting categories in which no order or ranking
can be imposed on the data.
Ordinalclassifies data into categories that can be ranked;
however, precise differences between the ranks do not exist.
Intervalranks data, and precise differences between units of
measure do exist; however, there is no meaningful zero.
Ratiopossesses all the characteristics of interval measurement,
and there exists a true zero.

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 Measurement Scales: Classification of Data

Nominal Ordinal Interval Ratio

level data level data level data Level data

Zip code Grade SAT score Height

Gender Rating IQ Weight

Eye color Ranking Temperature Time

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 Some Terminology: Summation Notation
Summation notation is mathematical notation commonly
used in statistics

Its really simple if you pause, take a deep breath, relax and
enjoy it a little patience goes a long ways

N
Mean X X p / N ( X 1 X 2 ... X p ... X N ) / N
p 1

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 Research Designs
Pre-experimental Designs
One-shot Case Study (Treatment group only)
One Group Pretest to Posttest Designmeasures of change
Intact Group Comparison at posttest
Experimental Designs
Random assignment to treatment & control group
Posttest Only Control Group
Pretest-Posttest Control Group
Factorial
Quasi-experimental Designs
Non-random assignment to treatment & control group observed
Nonequivalent-Control Group Design
Time-Series Design
Ex-Post Facto Designs
Statistical controls for comparing alternative treatments
Correlational Design
Criterion-Group Design

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 Pre-experimental Designs
One-shot Case Study (Treatment group only)
X O
Example:
X is a new personnel policy, a job satisfaction measurement is taken, and then a response is observed

One Group Pretest to Posttest Designmeasures change

O1 X O2
Example:
A job satisfaction measurement is taken before and after treatment X is applied

Intact Group Comparison at posttest

G1 X O

G2 Control O
Example:
G1 receives the treatment, G2 does not; then a job satisfaction measurement is taken and observed
(in this case G1 and G2 may represent two different business units)

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 Experimental Designs
Random assignment to treatment & control group
Posttest Only Control Group Pretest-Posttest Control Group

X O O1 X O2
Control O O1 Control O2
Factorial
X2
X1 O

X2
Control O
Example:
A job satisfaction measurement is taken after treatment X1 is applied or not and graveyard shift
X2 is implemented

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 Quasi-experimental Designs
Non-random assignment to treatment & control group observed.
Include one or more control groups.
Nonequivalent-Control Group Design
G1 O1 X O2

G2 O1 Control O2
Subjects receive a pretest (O1) treatment or non-treatment and then receive a posttest (O2)

Time-Series Design

O1 O2
Multiple observations are taken before and after a treatment is administered. Pretreatment
observations establish a control group baseline. Post-treatment observations establish a consistent
change in response.

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 Ex-Post Facto Designs
Statistical controls for comparing treatment and control
(relationships between two variables). Called ex-facto because the
researcher arrives after the treatment has been administered.
Correlational Design
O1 O2

SAT scores (O1) and GPA (O2) are collected.

Criterion-Group Design
G1 O

G2 O
Group 2 is compared to Group 1

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 Threats to Internal Validity
History:
- something co-occurring with the treatment caused the outcome
Maturation
- maturation, not the treatment, caused the outcome
Mortality
- loss of poorly performing subjects from a group caused the outcome
Statistical Regression
- extreme groups are likely to improve on retesting
Selection bias
- the differences in outcomes existed before the treatments were given
Instrumentation
- outcome measure not reliable, valid, or both
Testing
- pretest cued subjects to outcome measure
Stability
- Type I Error

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 History Threat

Occurrence of events other

than the independent variable.

Treatment (X)

Control

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 Maturity Threat

There may be developmental

(physical or mental) changes
occurring to the subjects during the
time of the experiment

Treatment (X)

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 Mortality Threat

Treatment (X)

Some subjects drop out

the study and they have
something in common,
say, low achievement.

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 Regression Threat

Treatment (X)

The groups were selected on the basis

of extreme score. (Regression effect:
low-extreme tends to increase, high-
extreme tends to drop)

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 Selection Threat

Treatment (X)
Initial difference
exist in groups
Control

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 Instrumentation Threat

? Treatment (X) ?

The measuring instruments is not reliable

or not valid, therefore, the score obtained
by subjects could not be accurate.

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 Testing Threat

Pretest

Treatment (X)

The subject learns from the pretest,

therefore, scores better on the
posttest

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 Testing Threat
H0 True H0 False

Type I
Reject Error Correct
H0 producers risk Decision
(a)

Type II
Do not reject Correct Error
H0
Decision consumers
risk
(b)
A type I error occurs if one rejects the null hypothesis when it is true.
A type II error occurs if one does not reject the null hypothesis when it is false.

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 Ideal Model

Experimental Design
(Control Group + Random Assignment)

Treatment (X)
Randomly
Assigned
Control

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 Practice Exercises

1. Select two out of the four major Research Designs.

2. Support your two selected research designs with original
hypothetical examples as outlined in this presentation.
3. Compare and contrast them with one another.
4. Indicate all threads to validity that you can document.

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