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Leedy and Omrod (2001) recommend the following:

Case studies
Grounded theory
Ethnography
Content analysis
Phenomenological studies
Studies a person, program, or event defined
time frame (Leedy and Omrod 2001).
Cresswell (1998) says the structure of a case
study should be the problem, the context,
the issues and the lesson learned. He adds
that sources of data collection are direct or
participant observation, interviews, archival
records or documents, physical artifacts
and audiovisual materials.
Examples:
Drug rehabilitated teenagers
Transgenders
Gay marriages
Success stories
Macmillan (1993) defines this type of
research as interactive and which
requires relatively extensive time in a site
to systematically observe, interview and
record processes as they occur naturally
at the selected location.
Leedy and Omrod (2001) says that
ethngraphy studies groups of people
that share a common culture.
The aspects included in ethnography are :
The justification for the study
Description of the group and method of
study
The evidence to support the researchers
claim
The findings to the research questions
Example:
Study on ethnic minority groups is the
dissertation done by Dr. Liza Daoasis who
did a study on the surviving cultural
heritage of the Kankaneys of Dalipay,
Batangas, Binguet
This research design calls for a detailed
and systematic examination of the contents
of particular body of materials for the
purpose of identifying patterns, themes or
biases (Leedy & Omrod 2001)
Use of words from which concepts or
images are vividly derived.

Examples are analyzing the content of


pictures and video materials that carry
footages of disasters like typhoons, a day in
the life of a person with disability.
Steps in data collection:
The researcher analyzes the materials
and puts them in a frequency table as
each characteristic or quality is
mentioned
The researcher conducts a statistical
analysis so that the results are reported in
a quantitative format.
The description of the material studied
The characteristics and qualities studied
A description of the methodology
The statistical analysis showing the
frequency table
The conclusion drawn about the
patterns, themes, or biases found in the
human communications and data
collection.
Cresswell (1998) points out that the
essence of the study is the search for
the central underlying meaning of the
research participants experience
Leedy & Omrod 2001 stress that the
purpose of the study is to understand
and experience from the research
participants point of view
Writing the research questions that
explore the meaning of the experience
Conducting the interviews
Analyzing the data to find the clusters of
meanings
Writing a report that makes the readers
understand more clearly the essential
structure of the experience
Is an attempt to extract a general abstract
theory of a process, or interaction
grounded in views of research participants
This process uses multiple stages of data
collection and the refinement and
interrelationship of categories of
information.
The purpose of grounded theory is to build
a theory that is faithful to the evidence
(Neuman, 2007)
Shares a several goals with more positivist-
oriented theory
Qualitative sampling
Non-probability sampling
Probability sampling
Purposive sampling
The primary goal of sampling is to get a
representative sample, or a small
collection of units or cases from a much
lager or population, such that the
researcher can study the smaller group
and produce accurate generalizations
about the larger groups.(Neuman 2007)
The purpose of sampling is to collect
cases, events, or actions that clarify and
deepen understanding
Common types of non-probability samples
are
Convenience Sampling
Quote sampling
Judgemental sampling
Involves choosing respondents at the
convenience of the researcher
Example:
People-in-the-street interviews-the sampling
of people to which the researcher has easy
access/such as a class of students and
studies that use people who have
volunteered to be questioned as a result of
an advertisement or other type of
promotion
Snowballing or friendship pyramiding are
parts of convenience sampling. This
sampling is based on an analogy of a
snowball, which begins small but
becomes larger as it is rolled on wet
snow and picks up additional snow
Snowballing sampling is a multistage
technique
This type samples a population that has
been subdivided into classes or categories.
It differs from stratified and cluster sampling
in that the classes in both are mutually
exclusive and are isolated prior to sampling
Example :
A survey in which a researcher desires to
obtain a certain number of respondents
from various income categories.
This kind of sampling, the researcher uses
his/her own expert judgment
Example :
A study of potential users of a new
recreational facility that is limited to
those persons who live within the vicinity
Basic types of probability samples :
Simple random sampling
Stratified sampling
Cluster sampling
Systematic sampling
To conduct this kind of sampling
procedure, the researcher must have a
list of all members of the population of
interest
To avoid researcher bias, computerized
sampling programs or random number
tables may be used
This involves categorizing the members
of the population into mutually exclusive
and collectively exhausted groups
Example:
Determining the average income earned
by vendors in a city.
The groups are defined in order to
maintain the heterogeneity of the
population
Clusters are representative samples of
the population as a whole
A cluster sample might be used by a
researcher attempting to measure the
age distribution of persons residing in a
given locality
This kind of sampling may spread the
members selected for measurement
more evenly across the entire population
Example:
survey of tourists entering a top tourist
destination in a country could be
conducted by sampling every tenth
visitor
Criterion sampling
Homogeneous sampling
Maximum variation sampling
Intensity sampling
Deviant case sampling
Can be done while in the process of
collecting data or while doing the
interpretation or data analysis
Neuman 2007 says that purposive sampling
is appropriate in 3 situation
- researcher uses it to select unique cases
that are specially informative
-to select members of a difficult-to reach
specialized population
- a researcher wants to identify particular
types of cases for in-depth investigation.
Primary Data Collection Techniques
Interview
Participant Observation
Focused Group Interview
Observation Evaluation
Biography / Autobiography
Questionnaire
Can take the form of informal
conversation, open-ended, interviews or
in-depth discussions.
Can be one-time interviews, multiple
interviews with the same participants,
multiple interviews with various
participants, or group interviews.
The researcher immerse himself/herself in
the natural setting of the research
participant.

Focus Group Interview


6-8 persons participate in the interview
The moderator or researcher must be
skilled in facilitating such group
discussion, and stay focus on the goal
and topic of said interview.
The researcher may or may not
participate in activities of the group
being observed.
Observes and records both are verbal
and non-verbal behavior of a person.
Biography/Autobiography
Personal biographies offer a rich source
of data or evidence that can shed light
or provide tentative answers to research
questions.
Observations
Interviews
Documents
Audio and Visual Materials
The researcher takes filled notes on the
behavior and activities of research
participants at the research site or in
their natural setting.
Interviews
The researcher may:
Conduct face-to-face interviews with
participants;
Do telephone interviews of participants
or
Engage in focus group interviews, with 6
or 8 interviewees.
These take the form of public documents
or private documents which are all
collected during the research process.
Audio and Visual Materials
May take the form of photographs, art
objects, videotapes, or any forms of
sound.
Heading
Instruction to the interviewer, such as
opening statements
The key research questions
Problems to follow key questions
Transition messages for the interviewer
Space for recording the interviewees
Comments, and space in which the
researcher records reflective notes
Coding- the research analyst reads the
data, and marks segments within the
data; this may be done at different times
throughout the process.
Each segment is labeled with a code
Shifting symptoms, having inconsistent If you have lupus, I mean one day its my liver;
days one day its my joints; one day its my head and
...
Interpreting images of self given by Its like people really think youre a
others hypochondriac if you keep complaining about
different ailments
Avoiding disclosure Its like you dont want to say anything
Predicting rejection because people are going to start thinking,
you know, God, dont go near her

Keeping others unaware And I think thats why I never say anything
Seeing symptoms as connected because I feel like everything I have is related
one way or another to the lupus

Anticipating disbelief But most of the people dont know I have


Controlling others views lupus, and even those that do are not going to
Avoiding stigma believe that ten different ailments are the
Assessing potential losses and risks of same thing.
disclosing
Data sets are summarized.
The end result is a more compact summary
that would have been difficult to
accurately discern without the preceding
steps of distillation.
Content or Discourse Analysis
The most basic technique is counting of
words, phrases or coincidences of tokens
with in the data
Frequently used in sociology to explore
relationships, such as change in
perceptions of race over time.
Enhance the analysts efficiency at data
storage/retrieval and at applying the
codes to the data.
Many programs offer efficiencies in
editing, revising and coding which allow
for work sharing, peer review and
recursive examination of data.
Organized and prepare the data for analysis .
Read through all the data
Begin detailed analysis with coding process
Use the coding process to generate a
description of the setting or people as well as
categories or themes for analysis
Decide how the description and themes will be
represented
A final step in data analysis involves making an
interpretation of data, that is, what Lincon and
Guba(1985) call lessons learned.
Cresswell (1998) says that analysis/interpretation must
be closely linked to the research design chosen
Example:
Grounded Theory has systematic steps to follow
according to Strauss and Corbin
Generating categories of information
Selecting one of the categories and positioning it
within a theoretical model
Explicating a story from the interconnection of this
categories
In idea cases, initial codes and broad themes
coalesce into a grounded theory
Case study and Ethnographic Research
involve a detailed description of the
setting, followed by analysis of the data
for themes and issues.
Phenomenological Research uses the
analysis of:
Significant statement
The generalization of meaning units and
Development of an essence
description
Employs restorying the participants
stories, using structural elements such as
plot, setting activities, climax and
denouement.
Qualitative Approach Quantitative Approach

The researcher analyzes Adopts experimental


the objective and study and computational
it on the basis of a methods.
previous case study or a It is mainly data based.
grounded theory Some of the most
Some popular important quantitative
qualitative research techniques are
methods are inferential, simulation,
ethnography, grounded and experimental.
theory, case study, and
phenomenology.
Means to form It involves the Variables are
a data base to construction of manipulated
infer an artificial to observe
characteristics environment their effect
or relationships within which on the
of population . relevant variable.
Survey is an information
example of can be
inferential obtained
research
This is a common approach and helps
you triangulate to back up one set of
findings from one method of data
collection underpinned by one
methodology, with another very different
method underpinned by another
methodology .
Sequential Explanatory Design

Sequential Exploratory Design

Concurrent Triangulation

Concurrent Nested
Involves the collection and analysis of
quantitative data followed by the
collection and analysis of qualitative
data. The priority is given to the
quantitative data, and the findings are
integrated during interpretation phase of
the study.
Sequential Exploratory Design
qualitative data collection and analysis
is followed by quantitative data
collection and analysis. The priority is
given to the qualitative aspect of the
study, and the findings are integrated
during the interpretation phase of the
study.
only one data collection phase is used,
during which quantitative and
qualitative data collection and analysis
are conducted separately yet
concurrently. The findings are integrated
during the interpretation phase of the
study. Usually, equal priority is given to
both types of research.
only one data collection phase is used,
during which a predominant method
(quantitative or qualitative) nests or
embeds the other less priority method
(qualitative or quantitative,
respectively). This nesting may mean that
the embedded method addresses a
different question than the dominant
method or seeks information from different
levels. The data collected from the two
methods are mixed during the analysis
phase of the project.

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