Grammatical Lexical

Are the glue that hold a Are the principle content

sentence together and of a sentence
make it grammatical

Are closed class, their Are open class, they can

membership is finite and add new
limited members easily

tend to serve as tend to serve as heads of

introducers of phrases
phrases, they often modify
heads
1.Number
English recognizes a distinction
between singular and plural. This
distinction has to be expressed
morphologically, by adding a suffix to
a noun or by changing its form in some
other way to indicate whether it
refers to one or more than one:
student/ students, fox/ foxes,
man/men, etc.
2.Gender
English does not have a grammatical category of
gender as such; English nouns are not regularly
inflected to distinguish between feminine and
masculine.
English has the category of person which
distinguishes in the third-person singular between
masculine, feminine and inanimate (he/she/it). This
distinction does not apply to the third-person plural
(they). In some languages, such as Arabic, gender
distinctions apply to the second as well as third
person pronouns. In addition to gender distinctions in
the third-person singular and plural, Arabic has
different forms for you depending on whether the
person or persons addressed is/are male or female.
3. Person
The category of person relates to the notion of
participant roles.
Bahasa Indonesia has a nine-term pronoun system
where English has only seven. The gender dimension
is absent from Bahasa Indonesia, but two other
dimensions are of relevance:
i. the inclusive/ exclusive dimension: English we has
two translations in Bahasa Indonesia, involving a
choice between kami and kita, depending on
whether the addressee is included or excluded;
ii. the familiar/ non-familiar dimension which
necessitates a choice between for instance aku and
saya for English I, depending on the relationship
between speaker and bearer.
4.Tense and Aspect
In some languages, the tense and aspect
system are highly developed. Wishram, an
American Indian language, makes no fewer
than four distinctions in reference to past
events alone, each distinction expressing a
certain degree of remoteness from the
moment of speaking. Some languages, such as
Chinese, Malay, and Yurok, have no formal
category of tense or aspect. The form of the
verb in these languages does not change to
express temporal or aspectual distinctions.
5.Voice
Scientific and technical writing in
English relies heavily on passive
structures (in order to give the
impression of objectivity and to
distance the writer from the
statements made in the text).
The syntactic structure of a language imposes
restrictions on the way messages may be organized in
that language. The order in which functional element
such as subject, predicator and object may occur in
more fixed in some language than in other. Language
vary in extent to which they rely on word order to signal
the relationship between element in the clause.
Compared in language such as German, Rusian , Arabic
and Eskimo, word order in English is relatively fixed
word other such as Chinnese often depend entirely on
the other word in which the element are placed.
Now need to take a broader look at language
and to consider the possibility that, as part of a
language system, lexical items and grammatical
structures have a meaning potential. This
meaning potential is only realized in
communicative events, that is, in text.
Following Brown and Yule (1983: 6), text is
defined here as the verbal record of a
communicative event; it is an instance of
language in use rather than language as an
abstract system of meanings and relations.
1.Text vs non-text
As translators, we have to operate with lexical
items and grammatical structures at various
stages of the translation process. It is
nevertheless imperative that we view the text
as a whole both at the beginning and at the
end of the process. A good translator does not
begin to translate until s/he has read the text
at least once and got a gist of the overall
message. But this is only the first step. Once
the source text is understood, the translator
then has to tackle the task of producing a
target version which can be accepted as a text
in its own right.
2. Features of text organization

Connections

Establish
Established through the
interrelationships
arrangement of
between persons and
information
events

Genre Text type

Thank You for
Your
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