THE SKY-WAVE

(IONOSPHERIC)
PROPAGATION METHOD
Sky Wave Propagation

A method of propagation that uses sky

wave.

The sky waves as radiated towards the

sky that are either reflected or refracted
back to Earth by the ionosphere.

Sometimes called ionospheric

propagation
The Earths Atmosphere
 The Ionosphere

The ionosphere in the upper portion of the

atmosphere, which continually absorbs
large quantities of radiant energy from the
sun, thus becoming heated and ionized.

The region of space located approximately

50 km to 400 km (30 mi to 250 mi) above
Earths surface
The Different Ionizing Agents of the
Ionosphere

Ultraviolet
Alpha,
Beta,
Gamma,
Cosmic rays
Meteors
Stratified Ionosphere

Because of the ionospheres non-

uniform composition, temperature
and density variations and the
different types of radiations
received, the ionosphere tends to
be stratified, rather than regular, in
its distribution.
The Layers of the
Ionosphere
The D Layer
The lowest layer of the ionosphere
With average daytime height of 70 km
With average daytime thickness of 10 km
Least ionized layer because it is the farthest layer
from the sun
Disappears at night because of recombination
process
Not an important layer for HF propagation because
it absorbs MF and HF waves to some extent
This layer can refract back to Earth VLF and LF
waves
The E layer
Next to layer D in height
Exist at about 100 km
With thickness of perhaps 25 km
Aids surface-wave propagation a little
Can also reflect some HF waves in
daytime up to approximately 20 MHz
The Es Layer
It is called the sporadic E layer
A thin layer of very high ionization
density
Sometimes making an appearance with
the E layer
Does not have an important part in long-
distance propagation
Sometimes permits unexpectedly good
reception
The F1 Layer
Exists at a height of 180 km in day time
Combines with the F2 layer at night
Daytime thickness is about 20 km
Reflects some HF waves but most pass
through to be reflected by F2 layer
Provide more absorption for HF waves
The F2 Layer
The most important reflecting medium
for HF radio waves
Approximate thickness of up to 200 km
Height ranges from 250 to 400 km in
daytime
At night it falls to a height of about 300
km, where it combines with the F1 layer
Factors Affecting the Ability of the
Ionosphere to Refract Radio Waves

Ion density
Frequency of the radio wave
Angle of Radiation (AOR) or Angle of
Transmission (AOT)
Sky Wave Propagation
Parameters
The virtual height, hv
The critical frequency, fc
The Maximum Usable Frequency (MUF)
The Optimum Working Frequency (OWF) or
Frequency Optimum Transmission (FOT)
The Lowest Usable Frequency (LUF)
The gyrofrequency, fg
The critical angle, c
The skip distance and skip zone
Hop
The virtual height, hv
The apparent height of an ionized layer
Determined from the time interval
between the transmitted signal and the
ionospheric echo at vertical incidence
The critical frequency, fc
The highest frequency that will be
returned down to earth by that layer
after having been beamed vertically
straight upward or at normal incidence
Determined by the maximum number of
free electrons per cubic meter or
electron density of the ionosphere
The Maximum Usable Frequency (MUF)

The highest frequency wherein the signal

is able to return back to earth when
beamed at a certain angle other than
normal or vertical incidence.
Normal values of MUF ranges from 8
MHz to 35 MHz but may increase to as
high as 50 MHz under unusual solar
activities.
The Optimum Working Frequency
(OWF) or Frequency Optimum
Transmission (FOT)
The best frequency used to operate a
sky wave link which is found to be 85%
of the MUF.
This frequency gives the most stable link
between transmitters and receivers in
sky wave propagation

OWT = FOT = 0.85MUF

The Lowest Usable
Frequency (LUF)
The lower limit of the range of
frequencies that provide useful
communications between the two given
points by ionospheric refraction.
The frequency nearest to the point
where reception becomes unusable
would be the LUF
The gyrofrequency, fg
The frequency wherein the periodic time
of the wave is equal to the time required
for one complete revolution about the
magnetic axis
The critical angle, c
The highest angle of radiation that will
return the wave to the earth at a given
density of ionization in the layer for the
frequency or wavelength under
consideration
The Skip Distance
The minimum distance over which
communication at a given frequency
(usually the MUF of the link) can be
established by means of the sky wave.
This distance is a function of both
frequency and the angle of radiation
(AOR) or angle of transmission (AOT)
Skip Zone
The area that lies between the outer
limit of the ground wave range and the
inner edge of energy return from the
ionosphere.
The area where no signal can be heard
Hop
A single reflection of a radio wave from
the ionosphere back to earth
Multi-hop means multiple reflections and
refractions thus increasing the coverage
along earths ground in sky wave
propagation
Factors affecting Optimum Operating
Frequency

Location and geography

Seasonal variations
Diurnal variations
Cyclical variations
Ionospheric Irregularities
Sudden Ionospheric Disturbances (SIDs)
Traveling Ionospheric Disturbances
(TIDs)
Ionospheric Storms
Fading
Types of Fading

Interference fading
Polarization fading
Focusing and defocusing
Absorption fading
Selective fading
Three Common Forms of Selective Fading

Rayleigh fading
Rician fading
Multi-path fading