Gas Separation, Treatment &

Specifications
University of Edinburgh
Oil & Gas Systems Engineering
 Natural Gas
Fossil fuel and finite resource

Half energy generated in UK comes from natural gas

Composed mainly of methane

Generates low emissions making it highly valued

Requires separation from other reservoir fluids and to be treated to specific

composition and energy content

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 Wells That Produce Natural Gas
Can be pure gas production from some wells allowing gas to be taken straight to
treatment

More likely that a well will contain gas, oil, water and contaminants, requiring
separation

Types of wells that natural gas can be extracted:

Oil Wells natural gas called associated gas, can be present as free gas or dissolved gas

Gas Wells natural gas called non-associated gas, well mainly contains gas

Condensate Wells natural gas called non-associated gas, well produces free gas and
semi-liquid hydrocarbon condensate

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 Raw Natural Gas
Raw natural gas contains variety of components

Methane is main component

Others include:

Ethane, propane, butane, higher order hydrocarbons (alkenes, aromatics)

Acid gases (carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulphide)
Mercaptans
Nitrogen, Helium, Water
Trace pollutants (mercury, chlorides)

Components present depend on well location and formation geologic conditions

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 Raw Natural Gas
Raw natural gas can be described by the components it contains:

Wet Gas methane composition less than 85%, may be out of 2-phase region at
reservoir conditions but crosses dew point curve and enters 2-phase region at separator
conditions

Dry (Lean) Gas contains few/no liquefiable liquid hydrocarbons, out of 2-phase region
at reservoir and separator conditions which is important for preventing hydrate
formation

Sour Gas contains more than 4ppm hydrogen sulphide, termed a sweet gas when
contains low quantities of hydrogen sulphide

Acid Gas contains high composition of acidic gases, such as CO2 and H2S, can be sour or
sweet

Condensates contains mixture of hydrocarbons which leave well as gas but condense
during production

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 Raw Natural Gas
Raw natural gas can be processed into different fractions:

Natural Gas methane content of 90%, processed to specific composition and energy
content

Natural Gas Liquids (NGL) mixture of ethane, propane, butane and pentane

Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) mixture of propane and butane compressed to liquid at
room temperature

Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) natural gas liquefied by refrigeration at -162C and
atmospheric pressure, volume 1/600 of natural gas at room temperature

Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) natural gas compressed to less than 1% of volume at
atmospheric pressure

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 Gas Specifications
Pipeline operators and distributors specify natural gas parameters

Typical standard parameters:

Volume
Measured in standard cubic meters at 0C and 101.325kPa

Calorific Value total amount of energy per unit gas produced during combustion:
Gross calorific value or gross heat of combustion heat released when gas in
mixture with air is ignited and all products are allowed to return back to original
temperature
Net calorific value or net heat of combustion heat released when gas in mixture
with air is ignited and water remains as vapour (heat in water vapour not
recovered)

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 Gas Specifications
Wobbe Index
Measure of heating effect during combustion on a burner. Calorific value and Wobbe
index can be altered by adding or removing gases such as nitrogen
Methane Number
Indicates knock tendency and is the product of components in the natural gas
Hydrogen Sulphide and Overall Sulphur Content
Max values of hydrogen sulphide and total sulphur is 5mg per cubic meter and 10mg per
cubic meter respectively
Mercury Ppb
Detectable limit of mercury of 0.001ppb which is required level it should be kept below
Dew Point
Temperature at which components condense at pipeline pressure
Particles and Other Substances
No particulate solids and liquids which could cause erosion and corrosion, limits of
carbon dioxide, nitrogen, mercaptans etc should be met
Additives
When natural gas used domestically, tetrahydrothiophene is added to give the gas a
smell so it can be detected when there is a leak
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 Gas Specifications
Reservoir fluids can be characterised depending on their bubble and dew point
curves relative to each other:

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Gas Specifications

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 Natural Gas Treatment
In order to meet required specifications various treatments are required:

Gas cooling - Initial stage of removing water by cooling to below water dew point.

Compression

Acid gas removal

Dehydration

Removal of NGLs

Mercury removal - Molecular sieves are used to remove mercury

Nitrogen rejection - Cryogenic distillation is used to remove nitrogen if present above the
concentration required

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Natural Gas Treatment

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Natural Gas Treatment

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 Gas Compression
Main purpose of gas compression on
offshore facilities:

Gas for export

Gas reinjection into well

Gas lift to improve production

Provide fuel for gas turbines

Booster to increase gas pressure

between equipment

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 Gas Compression
Compressor types can be split into two main categories:
Positive Displacement:
Increases pressure by operating on fixed volume gas in a confined space
Dynamic:
Uses velocity (kinetic energy) to cause a pressure increase

Compressor
Types

Positive
Dynamic
Displacement

Reciprocating Rotary Centrifugal Axial

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 Gas Compression
Type Advantages Disadvantages
Reciprocating High power and high pressure Vibration problems
capabilities High maintenance costs
Oil carry over not a problem Many moving parts
Can operate across a large range of Pressure rise per stage limited by
compression ratios valve design
Lowest initial cost Limited capacity
Good efficiency at low speed
Rotary Less vibrations Easily contaminated and blocked
Small compressor produces high Short life expectancy
flowrates Oil carry over problem
Low/medium initial cost Low efficiency for single-stage
Low/medium maintenance costs design
Few moving parts
High efficiency for two-stage design

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 Gas Compression
Type Advantages Disadvantages
Centrifugal Suitable for continuous gas supply Expensive
High power and pressure High speed requires quality bearing and
capabilities complicated maintenance programs
Oil free gas output Lower efficiency than reciprocating units
High speed and capacity Increased friction effects lead to higher
Low weight and vibration temperatures
Variable speed High fuel gas consumption
High availability Poor at low flow
Axial High peak efficiency High efficiency over small operating range
Increased pressure rise from High cost
increased number of stages Difficult manufacture
High speed High starting power requirements
High capacity for size Narrow operating range

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 Gas Compression
Export gas needs to comply with dry gas specification, which means that there
cannot be any risk of excessive condensation of water and gas in the gas pipeline
Often requirement is that the water and hydrocarbon dew points do not exceed -7 C

Multistage compression is used

Reduces the load on the compressor

Pressure ratio for each stage is the same

During compression gases produce heat

Gas coolers placed after each compressor

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 Gas Compression
Lower the compression ratio the less heat produced but the number of stages
required increases

Single stage compression from 0-200 bar creates temperatures so high that
lubricant can spontaneously combust and can cause oil to oxidise

Accident and Prevention guidelines state a max compression temperature of

160C, giving max compression ratio of 1:9

Compression ratio usually between 2 and 5 for each stage

Gas produced at around 4-5 bar, export gas is usually at high pressure at around
120 bar, export by pipeline between 4-5 bar and export by a tanker significantly
lower at >1 bar

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 Gas Compression
T2

T1 TA

T1

T1 = Inlet Temp Stage 1 TA = Outlet Temp Stage 1

T1 = Inlet Temp Stage 2 (after Inter-cooling) T2 = Outlet Temp Stage 2
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Gas Compression
T1

T2

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 Water Removal
Removal of water to prevent corrosion, liquid water formation, ice formation and
hydrate formation

Hydrates are crystalline structures stabilised by guest molecules

Hydrates most common in restart and shutdown procedures

Main problem is hydrate dislodging and travelling at high speed down pipes

Removing water prevents free water being formed which is required for hydrate
formation

Removal of hydrates should be controlled as large volumes of gas can be

produced, greatly increasing the pressure
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 Hydrates
3 different hydrates structures: S1, S2 and SH which contain different sized gas
molecules

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 Hydrates
Ways in which hydrate formation can be reduced:

Maintain high flowrates, reducing time for hydrate formation

Measure pipes to detect hydrate plugging
Monitor pressure, pressure drop indicates hydrate formation
Add inhibitor or dehydrator

Inhibitor types:

Thermodynamic alter chemical potential of water

Kinetic decrease rate at which hydrates form
Antiagglomerant prevents hydrate crystals from sticking together

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 Hydrate Inhibitors
Type Pros Cons
Thermodynamic More efficient Environmental concerns
Well Understood Chemical incompatibility
Proven track record Inhibitor not going where intended
Safety consideration
Kinetic Low cost Limited sub-cooling (<10C)
Low volumes required Time dependant
Environmentally friendly May interact with other chemicals
Non-toxic No models for prediction
Limited experience in oil systems
Antiagglomerants Low volumes required Uncertainty about effectiveness
Environmentally friendly Limited experience
Non-toxic No predictive models
No sub-cooling units System specific
Requires continuous hydrocarbon
liquid phase

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 Hydrates
Hydrates form in high pressure, low temperature environments
Also affected by system composition, rate of mixing, kinetics, physical sites for
crystal formation and salinity

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 Solid Desiccants
The advantages and disadvantages of the use of solid desiccants compared to
glycol for gas dehydration:

Advantages
Low dew points reachable
Less affected by pressure, temperature or
flowrate changes
Less susceptible to corrosion or foaming
Disadvantages
Higher capital costs and pressure drops
Desiccant poisoning by heavy hydrocarbons
Mechanical breaking of solid particles
High space and weight requirements
High regeneration heat and therefore high
utility costs

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 Liquid Desiccants
The advantages and disadvantages of glycol dehydration compared to solid
desiccants:

Advantages Disadvantages
Lower installation costs Glycol susceptible to contamination
Lower pressure drops Glycol can be corrosive when
contaminated or decomposed
Can be continuous rather then batch
Glycol make-up and recharging is easier
Glycol units need less regeneration heat per water
removed, reducing utility costs
Glycol systems can operate with materials that
would foul solid desiccants

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 Wet Gas In
Glycol Dehydration To LP Flare
To LP Flare
Water to
Drain

Dry Gas Out

Dry Glycol

Wet Glycol

Dry Stripping
Gas

Wet Stripping
Gas

Waste Gas
from Glycol

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To Closed Drains
Number of Stages in Column

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 Number of Stages in Column
Analytical solution of absorption process, estimating the theoretical
number of stages using Kremser-Brown equation:
+1 0 1 1 1
= ln 1 +
1 0
N= number or theoretical stages
yn+1 = molar fraction of water in inlet gas stream
y1 = molar fraction of water in outlet gas stream
yo = molar fraction of water in vapour phase in equilibrium, yo=k*xo
xo = molar fraction of water in inlet TEG stream
A = effective absorption factor = L / (G*k)
L = molar flow of liquid phase entering column
G = molar flow of gaseous phase entering column
k = represents equilibrium found graphically from the points of equilibrium data interlaid
with the linear trendline and k is found from the equation of the trendline
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 Acid Gas Removal
Carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulphide from an acid when reacting with water

Corrosive damage to equipment and pipelines

Removal of hydrogen sulphide or carbon dioxide called sweetening

Gas containing sulphur called sour gas

Removal methods include absorption, adsorption, cryogenic processes,

membranes, sulphur units and tail gas treatments

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 Removal of NGLs
Separate methane from propane, butane and pentane

Completed through absorption process using an oil which absorbs heavier

hydrocarbons

Ethane difficult to remove this way

Small amounts of ethane are allowed in natural gas but if there is too much
cryogenic expansion will be required

Cryogenic expansion blows gas into expansion chamber which reduces its vapour
pressure reducing its temperature causing methane to remain a gas and other
hydrocarbons to form a liquid

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 Flow Measurement
Hydrocarbon content, energy value, pressure and temperature of gas determined
through metering:

Orifice Meters measure pressure difference across orifice plate and pressure and
temperature of the gas, calculations used to determine normalised flow. Orifice plate
sensitive to solids building up on it and can effect performance

Ultrasonic Meters as orifice meters sensitive to residue, ultrasonic may be preferred

on larger installations. They work by sending ultrasonic beams across path and measures
Doppler Effect

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 Natural Gas Storage
To smooth out demand during different times of the year
Gas can be stored above or below ground
Below ground is cheaper, there is more space and can be safer
Natural gas is stored in liquid form above ground
Underground storage can be in depleted gas reservoirs, salt caverns and aquifers
Information required to determine if storage suitable:
Suitable geological strata or trapping structures
Leaking and migration potential
Cycling and thermal effects for determining stresses and how rock will react
Porosity
Permeability
Retention capacity
Site preparation and maintenance costs
Deliverability rates

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 Natural Gas Storage
Characteristics which quantify volume of gas in underground storage facility:
Total Gas Storage Capacity
Max volume of stored gas
Total Gas in Storage
Volume of gas in storage at a particular time
Base Gas
Volume of gas always present to help maintain pressure and delivery rates
Working Gas Capacity
Total gas in storage minus base gas
Working Gas
Volume of gas in storage above level of base gas
Deliverability
Amount of gas that can be withdrawn from storage daily
Injection Capacity
Amount of gas that can be injected into storage daily
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 Natural Gas Storage
Figure shows different types of underground gas storage

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 Natural Gas Storage
The different types of underground storage are depleted gas reservoirs, aquifers
and salt caverns

Advantages and disadvantages to each:

Depleted Gas Reservoirs
Advantages Disadvantages
Already has extraction network reducing Around 50% of gas in storage is base gas
development costs
Geological characteristics well known
Easier and cheapest type to develop, operate
and maintain

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 Natural Gas Storage
Aquifers

Advantages Disadvantages
Expensive to develop
Geological characteristics not well known and a lot of money goes into
determining the characteristics
Seismic testing required
Poor retention capacity
Infrastructure needs to be developed
Dehydration of gas required after extraction
Base gas can be up to 80% of total gas storage capacity
Can take twice as long to develop than depleted reservoirs- around 4 years

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Salt Caverns

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 Natural Gas Storage
Salt Caverns

Advantages Disadvantages
Allows little injected gas to escape Requires cavern leaching salt domes or salt bed
deposits have salt dissolved and extracted using water
to create a cavern which is expensive
Walls of cavern have structural strength Smallest type around one hundredth of the size of
of steel depleted gas reservoir
High deliverability rate
Around 33% of total gas in storage
capacity is base gas
Begin flowing gas and become
replenished quickly

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Salt Caverns

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 Liquefied Natural Gas
Natural gas stored above ground as LNG

As volume reduction around 600 times, it is easier and safer to store

Large quantities of natural gas available but can be far away from suitable
locations for use

Using pipes for transportation can be expensive due to long distances

An LNG leak will vapourise requiring no clean up operation

Is not stored under pressure and is not explosive making storage and
transportation safe

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Liquefied Natural Gas

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 Reinjection
Reinjection of natural gas into reservoir to increase reservoir pressure

Oil and gas produced from reservoir separated into oil and gas

Gas in compressed and reinjected over and over again until becomes
uneconomical to extract any more oil

Method of aiding crude oil production

Injected natural gas can dissolve in the oil reducing its viscosity making extraction
easier

Carbon dioxide can also be used to repressure the well, this also reduces carbon
dioxide emissions and is a form of carbon sequestration
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 Useful Links
Oil and Gas Production Handbook by ABB:
http://www.saudienergy.net/PDF/Intro%20oil.pdf
Information on oil and gas production:
http://www.adventuresinenergy.org/index.html
Classification of reservoir fluids:
http://www.assignmenthelp.net/assignment_help/classification-of-reservoir-and-
reservoir-fluids
Hydrates in flow assurance:
http://www.offshore-mag.com/articles/print/volume-70/issue-6/subsea/flow-
assurance-chemical-inhibition-of-gas-hydrates-in-deepwater-production-
systems.html
Gas Dehydration:
http://projekter.aau.dk/projekter/files/17059482/Gas_Dehydration.pdf

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