Applied Physics (PHY-102)

Engr. Asar Ali

(Assistant Professor )

Department of Electrical Engineering

City University of Science & Information Technology, Peshawar.
 Applied physics
The utilization of the scientific principles of the pure physics in
practical devices and systems.

The utilization of the scientific principles of the pure physics

to develop new technologies and solve different engineering
problems.

It is usually considered as a bridge or a connection between

physics and engineering.
 Atomic Theory
Atom is smallest piece of an element that keeps its chemical
properties

Atom contains 3 basic particles

Protons
Neutrons
Electrons orbit around nucleus
 Bohr model
The major advantage of the Bohr model was that, it explained
several things:
Periodic behavior of elements - elements with similar properties had
similar atomic spectra.
Each electron orbit of the same size or energy (shell) could only
hold so many electrons.
First shell = two electrons
Second shell = eight electrons
Third shell = eighteen electrons
General formula = 2(n)2, where n is number of shell.
When one shell was filled, electrons were found at higher levels.
Chemical properties were based on the number of electrons in the
outermost shell.
Elements with full outer shells do not react.
Other elements take or give up electrons to get a full outer shell.
 Conductors, Superconductor, Insulator and
Semiconductors
Conductor:
A conductor is a material that easily conducts electrical current. The
best conductors are single element materials such as Copper ((Cu)
Atomic No= 29), Silver((Ag) Atomic No= 47), Gold((Au) Atomic No=
79). Each atom of these elements have only one valence electron very
loosely bounded to the atom .These loosely bounded valence electrons
can easily break away from their atoms and become free electrons .
Thus there are many free electron which make up the current. The
term conductor is applied to any material that will support a generous
flow of charge when a voltage source of limited magnitude is applied
across its terminals.
 Superconductor
An element or compound that will conduct electricity (current) without
resistance below a certain temperature.
Once set in motion , the electrical current will flow forever in a closed
loop of super conductor materials.
The electrical resistivity of a metallic conductor decreases as
temperature is lowered. In conductors, such as copper or silver, this
decrease is limited by impurities and other defects.
In a superconductor, the resistance drops abruptly to zero when the
material is cooled below its critical temperature.
For example, Sulfur requires a pressure of 9.3 million atmospheres (9.4
X1011 N/m2) and a temperature of 17 K to reach superconductivity.
Mercury -4.15 K, Lead -7.2 K, Aluminum -1.175 K and Zinc -0.85
K.
Roughly half of the elements in the periodic table are known to be
superconductive.
 Insulator
An Insulator is a material that does not conduct current under normal condition.
Valence electrons are tightly bounded to the atoms, therefore there are very few free
electrons in an insulator, i.e. an insulator is a material that offers a very low level
of conductivity under pressure from an applied voltage source. i.e. Palladium ((pb),
Atomic No= 46).
 Semiconductors

A semiconductor is a material that is between conductors and

insulators in its ability conduct electrical current. A Semi
conductor in its pure (Intrinsic) state is neither a good conductor
nor a good insulator, i.e. Silicon ((Si) Atomic No= 14),
Germanium((Ge) Atomic No= 32), Carbon((C) Atomic No= 6).
semiconductor, therefore, is a material that has a conductivity
level somewhere between the extremes of an insulator and a
conductor.
 Valence shell

Outermost shell for a given atom

Determines the conductivity of the atom
Contains up to 8 electron

1 electron in valence shell nearly perfect conductor i.e.

Gold(Au, with atomic no. 79)

8 electron in valence shell (Complete outermost shell)

complete insulator i.e. Palladium(P, with atomic no. 46)

4 electron in valence shell semiconductor i.e. Silicon(Si,

with atomic no. 14).
ENERGY LEVELS
 Energy levels of Conductors, Insulator and Semiconductors

Since, V= W/Q => W=QV

Substitute the charge of a single electron (1.6x 10 -19
coulomb) and a potential difference of 1 volts, we will get
W= (1.6x 10 -19 C ) (1V)= (1.6x 10 -19 ) J
 Energy Levels

Within the band, electrons can move easily if there are

available states, because the difference in energy is tiny.
Between bands, electrons must get energy from another
source, because the band gap can be significant
 Covalent Bonding
A method by which atoms complete their
valence shells by sharing valence electron with
other atoms
Covalent bond will result in a stronger bond
between the valence electrons and their parent
atom (insulator)
However, valence electrons still possible to
absorb sufficient kinetic energy from natural
causes to break the covalent bond and assume
free state.
Covalent Bonding
 Doping
Conductivity of semiconductor material (Silicon, Germanium) can be
drastically increased by the controlled addition of impurities to the intrinsic
(Pure) semiconductor material. This process is called doping.
Doping increasing the number of current carriers (Electrons or Holes).
Two categories of impurities: N-type and P-type.
Intrinsic Semiconductor: Pure semiconductors, i.e. to which no impurity is
added.
Extrinsic Semiconductors: A semiconductor material that has been
subjected to the doping process is called an extrinsic material. OR To which
impurity has been added.
Impurity: For semiconductor materials normally, Pentavalent atoms ((Arsenic
(AS) of atomic no. 33, Phosphorus (P) of atomic no. 15, Bismuth (Bi) of
atomic no.83, Antimony (Sb) of atomic no.51) or
Trivalent atoms ((Boron (B) of atomic no. 5, Indium (In) of atomic no. 49,
Gallium (Ga) of atomic no.31)) are used as impurity. The added impurity is one
part of 10 billion, but it can change the total electrical properties of the
material.
 Types of Semiconductor Materials
N-type Semiconductors: N-type Semiconductors is created by introducing impurity
elements that have five valence electrons (pentavalent) antimony, arsenic,
phosphorus
Note that four covalent bonds are still present, however there is additional fifth
electron due to impurity atom
The remaining electron is free to move within the newly formed n-type material
Diffused impurities with five valence electrons are called donor atoms

Figure 1.9 Antimony impurity in n-type

material
 Types of Semiconductor Materials Cont

P-type Semiconductors: P-type is created by doping with impurity atoms having three
valence electrons boron, gallium, indium
Note that there are insufficient number of electrons to complete covalent bonds resulting
a hole
This hole is ready to accept a free electron
The diffused impurities with three valence electrons are called acceptor atoms.

Figure 1.11 Boron impurity in p-

type material
Electron versus Hole Flow
 Majority and Minority Carriers
In an n-type material - electron is called majority carrier and hole the minority carrier
In a p-type material hole is majority carrier and electron is the minority carrier
p-n Junction
 Semiconductor Diode

Diode :Diode is formed by bringing these two p- and n-type materials together
Depletion region : Electrons and holes at joined region will combine, resulting in a
lack of carriers in the region near the junction called the depletion region
 Semiconductor Diode Cont..

Since the diode is two-terminal device, the application of a

voltage across its terminals leaves three possibilities:
No bias (VD = 0V)
Forward bias (VD > 0V)
Reversed bias (VD < 0V)

Each condition will result in a response.

Bias: The amount of DC voltage to bring an electronic device in
operating condition.
 No Applied Bias (VD = 0V) Cont.

In the absence of an applied bias voltage, the net flow of

charge in any direction for semiconductor diode is zero
No Applied Bias (VD = 0V) Cont.

Figure 1.14 p-n junction with no external bias

 Reverse-Bias Condition (VD < 0V)

Reverse bias is the condition that prevents current through the diode.
The external potential of V volts (DC Voltage Source) is applied across the
P-N junction such that the positive terminal is connected to N-type
material and the Negative terminal is connected to P-type material as
shown in figure 1.16.
Unlike charges attract each other i.e. the positive of the bias- voltage source
Pulls the free electrons , which are the majority carriers in the n-region,
away from the PN- junction.
In P-type region, the negative of the bias- voltage source Pulls the
positive charges (holes) which are the majority carriers in the P-region,
away from the PN- junction.

The result a widening of the depletion region.

As the depletion region widens, the availability of majority carriers
decreases.
As more of the N and P regions depleted of majority carriers, the
electric field between the positive and negative ions increases in strength
.
At this point , the transition current essentially ceases except for a very
small reverse current that can usually be neglected.
 Reverse Current
The small number of free electron (minority carriers) in the P-region are
Pushed toward the PN junction by the negative bias voltage, creating a
small hole current.
When these electrons reach the widen depletion region, they combine with
the minority holes in the N-region as valence electrons and flow toward the
positive bias voltage.
Reverse-Bias Condition (VD < 0V) Cont.

Figure 1-16 Reverse-biased p-n junction

 Forward-Bias Condition (VD > 0V)

A semiconductor diode is forward-biased when the associated p-type and

positive and n-type and negative has been established

The application of forward-bias potential will pressure the electrons in n-

type and hole in p-type to recombine with ions near the boundary and
reduce the width of depletion region

The reduction in width of depletion region has resulted in a heavy majority

flow across the junction
Forward-Bias Condition (VD > 0V) Cont..

Figure 1.18 Forward-biased p-n junction

 characteristics

Figure 1.19 Silicon semiconductor diode characteristics

 Mathematical expressions for forward and Reverse bias Regions
(Shockleys Equation)

VD

ID I S (e nVT
1)
VD

ID ISe nVT
IS Eq 1.4

IS = Reverse saturation current

VD = Applied forward bias voltage across the diode
n = An ideality factor, which is a function of the operating condition and Physical
construction

VT kT / q Thermal Voltage

K = Boltzmanns constant = 1.38* 10-23 J/K

T = Absolute temp in kelvins = 273+ temp in 0C
q = Magnitude of electronic charge = 1.6* 10-19 C
Mathematical expressions for forward and Reverse bias Regions ( Cont.)
Example 1.1

a. At temp of 27 0C, determine the thermal voltage VT.

b. Repeat for 100 0C.

VT kT / q

a. VT = (1.38x10-23 )(273+27)/(1.6x10-19)
VT = 26 mV

b. VT =32.17 mV
Reverse Saturation Current (IS)
 Zener Region (Reverse Break Down) Cont.

As the reverse voltage

increases the diode can
zener breakdown.
Zener breakdown occurs
when the electric field near
the junction becomes large
enough to excite valence
electrons directly into the
conduction band and
generate carriers
 Avalanche-breakdown

Avalanche-breakdown:
Normally, the reverse current is so small that it can be neglected.
If the external reverse bias voltage is increased to a value called the breakdown
voltage , the reverse current will increase drastically.
Concept: The high reverse bias- voltage imparts energy to the free minority electrons so
that as they speed up through the P-region , they collide with atoms with enough energy
to knock valence electrons out of orbit and into the conduction band. The newly created
conduction- electrons are also high in energy and repeat the process. If an electron
knocks out another electron from their valence orbit results two free electrons. Now
these two electrons knocks two more electrons out of their valence orbit during its
travel through the P-region makes four free electrons. The process is continue and the
number quickly multiply. As these high-energy electrons go through the depletion
region, they have enough energy to go through the N-region as conduction electrons,
rather than combining with holes.
The multiplication of conduction electrons just discussed is known as avalanche and
results in a very high reverse current that can damage the diode because of excessive
heat dissipation.
PIV or PRV: The maximum reverse-bias potential that can be applied before entering the
Zener region is called the peak inverse voltage (referred to simply as the PIV rating) or
the peak reverse voltage (denoted by PRV rating).
 Silicon versus Germanium
Silicon diodes have, in general, higher PIV and current rating and wider
temperature ranges than germanium diodes.
PIV ratings for silicon can be in the neighborhood of 1000 V.
PIV ratings for germanium is closer to 400 V.
forward-bias voltage required for commercially available silicon (Si) diodes is of
magnitude 0.7 V.
forward-bias voltage required for commercially available Germanium (Ge) diodes
is of magnitude 0.3 V.
The potential at which this rise occurs is commonly referred to as the offset,
threshold, or firing potential.
The notation VT has been adopted, from the word threshold.
VT = 0.7 (Si)
VT = 0.3 (Ge)
Typical values of IS for silicon are much lower than that of germanium for similar
power and current levels as shown in next slide.
Silicon versus Germanium
 Temperature Effects

Silicon can be used for applications in which the temperature may rise to about 200C
(400F).
Germanium has a much lower maximum rating (100C).
As the temperature increases, the forward characteristics are actually becoming more ideal,
At room temperature there are approximately 1.5 x1010 free carriers in a cubic centimeter of
intrinsic silicon material.
At the same temperature, intrinsic germanium material will have approximately 2.5 1013 free
carriers per cubic centimeter.
The ratio of the number of carriers in germanium to that of silicon is greater than 103 would
indicate that germanium is a better conductor at room temperature.
In the forward-bias region the characteristic of a silicon diode shift to the left at a rate of 2.5
mV per centigrade degree increase in temperature.
In the reverse-bias region the reverse saturation current of a silicon diode doubles for every 10
0C rise in temperature.
 Temperature Effects cont.

Resistivity and conductivity are inversely related.

An increase in temperature of a semiconductor can result in a substantial increase in the
number of free electrons in the material.
As the temperature rises from absolute zero (0 K), an increasing number of valence electrons
absorb sufficient thermal energy to break the covalent bond and contribute to the number of
free carriers as described above. This increased number of carriers will increase the
conductivity index and result in a lower resistance level.
Negative Temperature Coefficient: Semiconductor materials such as Ge and Si that shows a
reduction in resistance with increase in temperature are said to have a negative temperature
coefficient.
Positive Temperature Coefficient: The resistance of most conductors will increase with
temperature. This is due to the fact that the numbers of carriers in a conductor will not
increase significantly with temperature, but their vibration pattern about a relatively fixed
location will make it increasingly difficult for electrons to pass through. An increase in
temperature therefore results in an increased resistance level and a positive temperature
coefficient.
Temperature Effects
 IDEAL DIODE cont

The ideal diode is a two-terminal device having the symbol and characteristics
shown in Figs. 1.1a and b, respectively.

The term ideal refers to any device or system that has ideal
characteristicsperfect in every way.
It provides a basis for comparison, and it reveals where
improvements can still be made.

One of the important parameters for the diode is the resistance

at the point or region of operation. If we consider the
conduction region defined by the direction of ID and polarity
of VD in Fig. 1.1a (upper-right quadrant of Fig. 1.1b), we will
find that the value of the forward resistance, RF, as defined by
Ohms law is
IDEAL DIODE Cont.
IDEAL VERSUS PRACTICAL
 RESISTANCE LEVELS
The operating point of a diode moves from one region to another, the resistance
of the diode will also change due to the non-linear shape of the characteristic
curve.
Two different resistance levels:

i. AC or Dynamic Resistance
ii. DC or Static Resistance
 AC or Dynamic Resistance
The varying input will move the instantaneous operating point up and down a
region of the characteristics and thus defines a specific change in current and
voltage.

rd= Vd/Id
 AC or Dynamic Resistance cont..

rd= Vd/Id
 DC or Static Resistance
The application of a dc voltage to a circuit containing a semiconductor diode
will result in an operating point on the characteristic curve that will not
change with time.
The resistance of the diode at the operating point can be found simply by
finding the corresponding levels of VD and ID.

RD=VD/ID
Higher the current through a diode, the lower is the dc resistance level.
Example 1.3
a. Determine the ac resistance at ID=2mA.
b. Determine the ac resistance at ID=25mA.
c. Compare the results of part (a) and (b) to
the dc resistances at each current level.
Solution:
a. Id=4mA-0mA=4mA
Vd=0.76V-0.65V=0.11V
rd =27.5

b. Id=30mA-20mA=10mA
Vd=0.8V-0.78V=0.02V
rd =2

c. RD =VD / ID=0.7V/2mA
=350
RD =VD / ID=0.79V/25mA
=31.62
 EXAMPLE 1.1
Determine the dc resistance levels for the
diode of Fig. 1.31 at
(a) ID = 2 mA
(b) ID = 20 mA
(c) VD = -10 V

Figure 1.31
EXAMPLE 1.1 cont