Vitamins

Vitamins are essential organic nutrients, required in small

amounts.

They cannot be synthesized by the body. Must be

obtained by outside sources like diet, rumen bacteria &

sun.

Required for growth, maintenance, reproduction and

lactation.
 2

The Nature of Vitamins

Vitamins are organic (carbon) compounds

needed for normal function, growth and

maintenance.

Vitamins are cofactors, they dont do anything

by themselves.

They are not a source of calories.

 Classes of Vitamins

Fat Soluble Vitamins: Water Soluble Vitamins:

stored in tissues not stored in tissues, must
have constant supply
Examples
A Examples
D B, B1, B2, B6 & B12
E Niacin
K Folic Acid
C
FAT SOLUBLE
VITAMINS
Vitamins A, D, E and K
Vitamin A and Beta-Carotene

Vitamin A is found in the body in compounds

known as retinoids:

retinol, retinal, and retinoic acid.

These have functional roles in vision,

healthy epithelial cells, and growth.
Vitamin A and Beta-Carotene
Vitamin A deficiency is a major health problem in
the world.
Toxicity is often associated with abuse of
supplements.
Plant foods provide carotenoids, such as beta-
carotene, which have vitamin A activity.
Animal foods provide compounds that are easily
converted to retinol.
Retinol binding protein (RBP) allows vitamin A to be
transported throughout the body.
 The Retinoids
3 forms of vitamin A
important for health
Retinal
Retinoic acid
Retinol (key player; can be
converted to other forms)
-carotene (a carotenoid or
pigment) in yellow/orange
foods is a potent provitamin
A
 Vitamin A and Beta-Carotene

Roles in the Body

Vitamin A in Vision
Helps to maintain the cornea

Conversion of light energy into nerve impulses

at the retina
Rhodopsin is a light-sensitive pigment of the
retina that contains a protein called opsin and
Retinal
 Role of Vitamin A in Vision
1. When the rhodopsin is exposed to light it is bleached releasing the
11-cis-retinal from opsin.
2. Isomerization of the cis-isomer of retinal to all-trans-retinal, causes
conformational changes in rhodopsin, hyperpolarization of the retinal
rod cell, and extremely rapid transmission of electrical activity to the
brain via the optic nerve
3. Trans-retinal is isomerized to cis-retinal in the dark, which
associates with opsin to regenerate rhodopsin.

Visual Pigment
Vitamin A and Beta-Carotene
Roles in the Body
Vitamin A in Protein Synthesis and Cell
Differentiation
Through cell differentiation, vitamin A allows cells to
perform specific functions.

Epithelial cells

Epithelial tissues on the outside of the body form the

skin.

Epithelial tissues on the inside of the body form the

mucous membranes.
Vitamin A maintains Without vitamin A, the
healthy cells in the normal structure and
mucous membranes. function of the cells in
the mucous membranes
are impaired.

Mucus Goblet cells

Vitamin A and Beta-Carotene

Roles in the Body

Vitamin A in Reproduction and Growth
Sperm development in men

Normal fetal development in women

Growth in children
Role in Bone and teeth formation. Promotes the proper
growth of bones and teeth. Bone cells (osteoblasts and
osteoclasts) depend on vitamin A for their normal functioning.

Is important in the formation and maintenance of healthy hair, skin

and mucous membranes.
Vitamin A and Beta-Carotene
Roles in the Body
Beta-Carotene as an Antioxidant

Beta-carotene, like all carotenoids, is an antioxidant

Beta-carotene is a potent quencher of singlet oxygen.

Beta-carotene also acts as an antioxidant that

scavenges free radicals deep in human LDL and HDL
as well as in cell membranes

Beta-carotene helps protect the body from diseases,

including cancer.
 Vitamin A Deficiency
Because vitamin A is stored in the body, it would take a year or more to
develop a deficiency in the presence of inadequate intake.

Night Blindness

First detectable sign of vitamin A deficiency

Inability to see in dim light or inability to recover

sight after a flash of bright light
 Vitamin A Deficiency
Blindness

Xerophthalmia
Xerosis is the first stage where the cornea becomes dry and hard.
Keratomalacia is the softening of the cornea.

Keratinization
Epithelial cells secrete a protein called keratinthe hard, inflexible protein of hair
and nails.
Changes in epithelial cells results in keratinization, rough, dry and scaly skin.

Deficiency disease is called hypovitaminosis A

Xerophthalmia
 Vitamin A Toxicity
Can occur with concentrated amounts of the preformed vitamin A
from animal foods, fortified foods, or supplements.

Consuming excessive amounts of beta-carotene from supplements can be

harmful.

Bone Defects
Increased activity of osteoclasts causes weakened bones and contributes to
osteoporosis and fractures.

Toxicity is called hypervitaminosis A

Vitamin A and Beta-Carotene
Vitamin A Recommendations (2001 RDA)

Expressed as retinal activity equivalents (RAE) because sources

include all forms of retinoids and beta-carotene

RDA men: 900 g RAE/day

RDA women: 700 g RAE/day

 Vitamin A in Foods

Retinol is found in fortified milk, cheese, cream, butter, fortified

margarine, and eggs.

Beta-carotene
Spinach and other dark green leafy vegetables
(chlorophyll pigment masks the color)
Deep orange fruits like apricots and cantaloupe
Deep orange vegetables like squash, carrots, sweet
potatoes, and pumpkin
White foods are typically low in beta-carotene.

Liver is rich in vitamin A.

Vitamin D
Vitamin D is a nonessential nutrient that acts like a
hormone in the body.

The body can make vitamin D with help from sunlight.

 Not found naturally in many
Vitamin D - Sources foods
Synthesized in body

Plants (ergosterol)

Fluid milk products are fortified

with vitamin D
Oily fish

Egg yolk

Butter

Liver

Difficult for vegetarians

 In the skin:
7-dehydrocholesterol
(a precursor made in the liver
from cholesterol)
Ultraviolet
light from
the sun
Previtamin D3

Foods

Vitamin D3
(an inactive form)

In the liver: Hydroxylation

25-hydroxy vitamin D3

In the Hydroxylation
kidneys:

1,25-dihydroxy vitamin
D3 (active form)
 Vitamin D
Vitamin D = calciferol

Vitamin D2 = ergocalciferol
Completely synthetic form produced by the irradiation of

the plant steroid ergosterol

Vitamin D3 = cholecalciferol
Produced photochemically by the action of sunlight or

ultraviolet light from the precursor sterol 7-

dehydrocholesterol
 Formation of Vitamin D
Skin (UV light)
7-dehydro cholesterol vitamin D3
Ergosterol vitamin D2

Liver
OH-group added
25-hydroxy vitamin D3
Storage form of vitamin (~3 months storage in liver)

Kidney
OH-group added by 1-hydroxylase
1,25-dihydroxy vitamin D3
Active form of vitamin D, a steroid hormone
Vitamin D - Functions
Functions
Bone development
Calcium absorption (small intestine)

Calcium resorption (bone and kidney)

Maintain blood calcium levels

Phosphorus absorption (small intestine)

Hormone
Regulation of gene expression

Cell growth
VITAMIN D AFFECTS ABSORPTION OF DIETARY CA

1,25-(OH)2 D binds to
vitamin D receptor
(VDR) in nucleus

Increase in calbindin
(Ca-binding protein)

Groff & Gropper, 2000

Vitamin D Affects Absorption of Dietary
Phosphorus

1,25-(OH)2 D3 increases activity of

alkaline phosphatase

Hydrolyses phosphate ester bonds

Releases phosphorus

Increase in phosphate carriers

Parathyroid Hormone (PTH)
Calcium-sensor protein in the thyroid gland

Detects low plasma calcium concentrations

PTH stimulates 1,25-(OH)2 vitamin D production

hypocalcemia/hypophoshatemia stimulates 1,25-(OH)2 vitamin D production

Stimulates 1-hydroxylase activity in the kidneys

25-OH D 1,25-(OH)2 D.

PTH required for resorption of Ca from bone

Activates a calcium pump on the osteocytic membrane

Activates osteoclasts
Bone Metabolism
Osteoclasts
Break down bone
Calcium resorption
Derived from stem cells
Differentiate after stimulation by vitamin D

Osteoblasts
Bone-forming cells
Secrete collagen, which calcifies
Bone contains 6066% Ca by weight
Hydroxyapatite, Ca10(PO4)6(OH)2
Vitamin D Deficiency - Rickets
 Osteomalacia

Normal pelvis
Vitamin D Toxicity
Calcification of soft tissue

Lungs, heart, blood vessels

Hardening of arteries (calcification)

Hypercalcemia

Normal is ~ 10 mg/dl

Excess blood calcium leads to stone formation in kidneys

Lack of appetite

Excessive thirst and urination

 Vitamin E
There are four different tocopherol compounds, but only the alpha-
tocopherol has vitamin E activity in human beings.
Vitamin E as an Antioxidant

Vitamin-E is also called as Anti sterility Vitamin

Functions:

This vitamin is required for the normal functioning of sex organs

Stops the chain reaction of free radicals

Protection of polyunsaturated fatty acids and vitamin A

Protects the oxidation of LDLs

Vitamin E Deficiency
Primary deficiency due to inadequate intake is rare

requirement is tied to selenium deficiency (Selinium

is cofactor in glutathione peroxidase)

Erythrocyte hemolysis
Occurs in premature infants
Hemolytic anemia can be treated with vitamin E.
 Vitamin E
Vitamin E Deficiency Symptoms
Deficiency leads to sterility in males and abortions in females

Loss of muscle coordination and reflexes

Impaired vision and speech

Nerve damage

Erythrocyte hemolysis (breaking open of red blood cells)

Fibrocystic breast disease responds to vitamin E

treatment.
Intermittent claudication(muscle pain) responds to vitamin
E treatment.
Vitamin E
Vitamin E Toxicity
Rare and the least toxic of the fat-soluble vitamins

May augment the effects of anticlotting medication

Vitamin E Recommendations (2000 RDA)

RDA adults: 15 mg/day

Vitamin E in Foods
Polyunsaturated plant oils such as margarine, salad dressings, and

shortenings

Leafy green vegetables

Wheat germ

Whole grains

Liver and egg yolks

Nuts and seeds

Easily destroyed by heat and oxygen

Vitamin K
Vitamin K is known as Anti coagulation Vitamin.

Also known as phylloquinone, menaquinone, menadione, and

naphthoquinone

menadione is the most active form

Vitamin K is unique in that half of human needs are met through the
action of intestinal bacteria.

Vitamin K is essential in blood clotting.

deficiency can cause uncontrolled bleeding.

Deficiencies can occur in newborn infants and people taking

antibiotics.
Vitamin K
Roles in the Body
Synthesis of blood-clotting proteins

Synthesis of bone proteins that regulate blood calcium

Without vitamin K, a hemorrhagic disease may develop.

Hemophilia is a hereditary disorder and is not cured with vitamin K.

 Vitamin K

Vitamin K Deficiency
Symptoms include hemorrhaging

Secondary deficiencies may occur with use of antibiotics.

Newborn infants receive a single dose of vitamin K at birth

because of a sterile intestinal tract.

Vitamin K
Vitamin K Toxicity
Uncommon

No known toxicities

High doses can decrease the effectiveness of anticlotting

medications.
Vitamin K
Vitamin K Recommendations (2001 AI) and Sources
AI men: 120 g/day

AI women: 90 g/day

Vitamin K Sources

Bacterial synthesis in the digestive tract

Significant Food Sources

Liver

Leafy green vegetables and cabbage-type vegetables

Milk
The Fat-Soluble Vitamins--In Summary
The function of fat-soluble vitamins depends on the

presence of other fat-soluble vitamins.

There are many interactions of fat-soluble vitamins with

minerals.