Towers, Chimneys and Masts: Wind Loading and Structural Response Lecture 21 Dr. J.D. Holmes

Wind loading and structural response
Lecture 21 Dr. J.D. Holmes
Towers, chimneys and masts

Slender structures (height/width is high)
Mode shape in first mode - non linear
Higher resonant modes may be significant
Cross-wind response significant for circular cross-sections
critical velocity for vortex shedding 5n1b for circular sections

10 n1b for square sections
- more frequently occurring wind speeds than for square sections
Drag coefficients for tower cross-sections
Cd = 2.2
Cd = 1.2
Cd = 2.0
Drag coefficients for tower cross-sections
Cd = 1.5
Cd = 1.4
Cd 0.6 (smooth, high Re)

Drag coefficients for lattice tower sections

e.g. square cross section with flat-sided members (wind normal to face)
4.0
Drag 3.5
coefficient
CD (q=0O) 3.0 Australian
Standards ASCE 7-02 (Fig. 6.22) :
2.5
CD= 42 5.9 + 4.0

2.0
1.5
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

Solidity Ratio
= solidity of one face = area of members total enclosed area
includes interference and shielding effects between members
( will be covered in Lecture 23 )

Along-wind response - gust response factor
Shear force : Qmax = Q. Gq
Bending moment : Mmax = M. Gm
Deflection : xmax = x. Gx
The gust response factors for base b.m. and tip deflection differ -
because of non-linear mode shape
The gust response factors for b.m. and shear depend on the height
of the load effect, z1 i.e. Gq(z1) and Gm(z1) increase with z1
Along-wind response - effective static loads
160
140
Resonant Combined
120
Height (m)
100 Background
80
60
Mean
40
20
0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Effective pressure (kPa)
Separate effective static load distributions for mean, background

and resonant components (Lecture 13, Chapter 5)
Cross-wind response of slender towers
For lattice towers - only excitation mechanism is lateral turbulence
For solid cross-sections, excitation by vortex shedding is usually

dominant (depends on wind speed)
Two models : i) Sinusoidal excitation

ii) Random excitation
Sinusoidal excitation has generally been applied to steel chimneys where
large amplitudes and lock-in can occur - useful for diagnostic check of
peak amplitudes in codes and standards
Random excitation has generally been applied to R.C. chimneys where

amplitudes of vibration are lower. Accurate values are required for design
purposes. Method needs experimental data at high Reynolds Numbers.
Sinusoidal excitation model :
Assumptions :
sinusoidal cross-wind force variation with time
full correlation of forces over the height
constant amplitude of fluctuating force coefficient
Deterministic model - not random
Sinusoidal excitation leads to sinusoidal response (deflection)

Sinusoidal excitation model :

Equation of motion (jth mode):
G j a C j a K j a Q j (t )
h
m(z) j (z) dz
2
Gj is the generalized or effective mass =
0
j(z) is mode shape
h
Qj(t) is the generalized or effective force = 0
f(z, t) j (z) dz
Sinusoidal excitation model
Representing the applied force Qj(t) as a sinusoidal function of time, an

expression for the peak deflection at the top of the structure can be derived :
(see Section 11.5.1 in book)

h h
y max (h) a C b 0 j (z) dz C j (z) dz
2
0
b 16 2G j jSt 2 h 2
4 Sc St 2 j (z) dz
0
Cj
where j is the critical damping ratio for the jth mode, equal to
2 GjK j
nsb n jb
St Strouhal Number for vortex shedding
U(z e ) U(z e ) ze = effective height ( 2h/3)
4m j
Sc (Scruton Number or mass-damping parameter)
a b 2
m = average mass/unit height
Sinusoidal excitation model
This can be simplified to : y max k.C

b 4 .Sc.St 2

(z) dz
h
where k is a parameter depending on mode shape j

0
h
(z) dz
2
0
j
The mode shape j(z) can be taken as (z/h)
For uniform or near-uniform cantilevers, can be taken as 1.5; then k = 1.6

Random excitation model (Vickery/Basu) (Section 11.5.2)

Assumes excitation due to vortex shedding is a random process
lock-in behaviour is reproduced by negative aerodynamic damping

Peak response is inversely proportional to the square root of the damping
In its simplest form, peak response can be written as :
y A

b [( Sc / 4 ) K (1 y 2 )]1/ 2
ao 2
yL
A = a non dimensional parameter constant for a particular structure (forcing terms)
Kao = a non dimensional parameter associated with aerodynamic damping

yL= limiting amplitude of vibration
Random excitation model (Vickery/Basu)
Three response regimes :

Maximum tip 0.10
deflection /
diameter
Lock-in
Regime
0.01
Transition
Regime
Forced
vibration
0.001 Regime
2 5 10 20
Scruton Number
Lock in region - response driven by aerodynamic damping

Scruton Number
The Scruton Number (or mass-damping parameter) appears in peak response

calculated by both the sinusoidal and random excitation models
4m
Sc
a b2
m
Sometimes a mass-damping parameter is used = Sc /4 = Ka =
a b2
Clearly the lower the Sc, the higher the value of ymax / b (either model)
Sc (or Ka) are often used to indicate the propensity to vortex-

induced vibration
Scruton Number and steel stacks
Sc (or Ka) is often used to indicate the propensity to vortex-induced

vibration
e.g. for a circular cylinder, Sc > 10 (or Ka > 0.8), usually indicates low
amplitudes of vibration induced by vortex shedding for circular cylinders
American National Standard on Steel Stacks (ASME STS-1-1992) provides

criteria for checking for vortex-induced vibrations, based on Ka
Mitigation methods are also discussed : helical strakes, shrouds, additional

damping (mass dampers, fabric pads, hanging chains)
A method based on the random excitation model is also provided in ASME

STS-1-1992 (Appendix 5.C) for calculation of displacements for design
purposes.
Helical strakes
For mitigation of vortex-shedding induced vibration :

h/3
h
0.1b
Eliminates cross-wind vibration, but increases drag coefficient and along-wind

vibration
Case study : Macau Tower
Concrete tower 248 metres (814 feet) high

Tapered cylindrical section up to 200 m (656 feet) :
16 m diameter (0 m) to 12 m diameter (200 m)
Pod with restaurant and observation decks

between 200 m and 238m
Steel communications tower 248 to 338 metres (814 to 1109 feet)
aeroelastic
model
(1/150)
Combination of wind tunnel and theoretical

modelling of tower response used
Effective static load distributions

distributions of mean, background and resonant wind loads
derived (Lecture 13)
Wind-tunnel test results used to calibrate

computer model
Wind tunnel model scaling :
Length ratio Lr = 1/150
Density ratio r = 1
Velocity ratio Vr = 1/3

Derived ratios to design model :
Bending stiffness ratio EIr = r Vr2 Lr4
Axial stiffness ratio EAr = r Vr2 Lr2
Use stepped aluminium alloy spine to model

stiffness of main shaft and legs
Wind-tunnel
Mean velocity AS1170.2
profile : Macau Building Code
350
Full-scale Height (m)

300
250
200
150
100
50
0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5
Vm /V240
Wind-tunnel
Turbulence MACAU TOWER
AS1170.2- Turbulence
intensity Macau Building
Intensity ProfileCode
profile : 350
300
Height (m) 250
Full-scale
200
150
100
50
0
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3
Iu
Wind tunnel test results - along-wind b.m. (MN.m) at 85.5 m (280 ft.)
R.m.s.
MACAU TOWER Mean
Maximum
0.5% damping Minimum
2000
1500
1000
500
0
-500 0 20 40 60 80 100
Full scale mean wind speed at 250m (m/s)
Wind tunnel test results - cross-wind b.m.(MN.m) at 85.5 m (280 ft.)
MACAU
R.m.s. TOWER Mean
0.5% damping Minimum
Maximum
2000
1500
1000
500
0
-500 0 20 40 60 80 100
-1000
-1500
-2000
Along-wind response was dominant

Cross-wind vortex shedding excitation not strong because
of complex pod geometry near the top
Along- and cross-wind have similar fluctuating components
about equal, but total along-wind response includes mean
component
Along wind response :
At each level on the structure define equivalent wind loads
for :
mean wind pressure
background (quasi-static) fluctuating wind pressure
resonant (inertial) loads
These components all have different distributions
Combine three components of load distributions for

bending moments at various levels on tower
Computer model calibrated against wind-tunnel results

Design graphs
cracked concrete 5% damping
Mean Maximum
500
Along-wind
bending 400
moment 300
at 200
200
metres
(MN.m) 100
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Design graphs
Macau Tower Effective static loads
(s=0 m)
U m ean = 59 7m/s; 5% damping
350
300 Mean
Height (m)
250
Background
200
Resonant
150
100 Combined
50
0
0 100 200
Load (kN/m)
End of Lecture 21
John Holmes
225-405-3789 JHolmes@lsu.edu

Towers, Chimneys and Masts: Wind Loading and Structural Response Lecture 21 Dr. J.D. Holmes

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Towers, Chimneys and Masts: Wind Loading and Structural Response Lecture 21 Dr. J.D. Holmes

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Verfügbare Formate

Wind loading and structural response

Lecture 21 Dr. J.D. Holmes

Towers, chimneys and masts

Slender structures (height/width is high)

Mode shape in first mode - non linear

Higher resonant modes may be significant

Cross-wind response significant for circular cross-sections

critical velocity for vortex shedding 5n1b for circular sections

Drag coefficients for tower cross-sections

Drag coefficients for tower cross-sections

Cd 0.6 (smooth, high Re)

Drag coefficients for lattice tower sections

CD= 42 5.9 + 4.0

0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

= solidity of one face = area of members total enclosed area

includes interference and shielding effects between members

( will be covered in Lecture 23 )

Along-wind response - gust response factor

Shear force : Qmax = Q. Gq

Bending moment : Mmax = M. Gm

Along-wind response - effective static loads

Effective pressure (kPa)

Separate effective static load distributions for mean, background

Cross-wind response of slender towers

For lattice towers - only excitation mechanism is lateral turbulence

For solid cross-sections, excitation by vortex shedding is usually

Two models : i) Sinusoidal excitation

Random excitation has generally been applied to R.C. chimneys where

Cross-wind response of slender towers

Sinusoidal excitation model :

Sinusoidal excitation leads to sinusoidal response (deflection)

Cross-wind response of slender towers

Sinusoidal excitation model :

j(z) is mode shape

Sinusoidal excitation model

Representing the applied force Qj(t) as a sinusoidal function of time, an

(see Section 11.5.1 in book)

Sinusoidal excitation model

This can be simplified to : y max k.C

where k is a parameter depending on mode shape j

The mode shape j(z) can be taken as (z/h)

For uniform or near-uniform cantilevers, can be taken as 1.5; then k = 1.6

Random excitation model (Vickery/Basu) (Section 11.5.2)

lock-in behaviour is reproduced by negative aerodynamic damping

In its simplest form, peak response can be written as :

A = a non dimensional parameter constant for a particular structure (forcing terms)

Kao = a non dimensional parameter associated with aerodynamic damping

Random excitation model (Vickery/Basu)

Three response regimes :

Lock in region - response driven by aerodynamic damping

The Scruton Number (or mass-damping parameter) appears in peak response

Sc (or Ka) are often used to indicate the propensity to vortex-

Scruton Number and steel stacks

Sc (or Ka) is often used to indicate the propensity to vortex-induced

American National Standard on Steel Stacks (ASME STS-1-1992) provides

Mitigation methods are also discussed : helical strakes, shrouds, additional

A method based on the random excitation model is also provided in ASME

For mitigation of vortex-shedding induced vibration :

Eliminates cross-wind vibration, but increases drag coefficient and along-wind

Case study : Macau Tower

Concrete tower 248 metres (814 feet) high

Pod with restaurant and observation decks