Tamil nadu history

Chronological order
Year-----------------------------Age/Kingdom Peak
5,00,000BCE-3000BCE------------Paleolithic
2,500BCE------------------------Neolithic
350BCE-200CE-------------------Sangam Age (Early Chola, Pandya and Cheras)
300BCE-200CE-------------------Early Cholas
600BCE-200CE-------------------Early Pandyas
300BCE-250CE-------------------Early Cheras
250CE-600CE--------------------Kalabhars Dynasty
570CE-700CE--------------------Pallava Empire
560CE-920CE--------------------Medieval Pandya Empire
845CE-1280CE-------------------Medieval and Later Chola Empire
1150CE-1345CE------------------Later Pandya Empire
1336CE-1646CE------------------Vijayanagar Empire
1559CE-1736CE------------------Madurai Nayak Kingdom
1785CE-1950CE------------------Madras Presidency (Under British 1947)
1950CE-1968CE------------------Madras state (Republic of India)
1968CE-Till----------------------Tamilnadu (Republic of India)
Sangam age
 Dynasty of sangam age
Chera
Cholas
pandyas
 Chera:
The Cheras ruled over parts of modern Kerala. Their capital was
Vanji and their important seaports were Tondi and Musiri. They had
the palmyra flowers as their garland. The Pugalur inscription of the
first century A.D refers to three generations of Chera rulers.
Padirruppattu also provides information on Chera kings. Perum
Sorru Udhiyan Cheralathan, Imayavaramban Nedum Cheralathan
and Cheran Senguttuvan were the famous rulers of this dynasty.
Cheran Senguttuvan belonged to 2nd century A.D. His younger
brother was Elango Adigal, the author of Silappathigaram. Among
his military achievements, his expedition to the Himalayas was
remarkable. He defeated many north Indian monarchs. Senguttuvan
introduced the Pattini cult or the worship of Kannagi as the ideal
wife in Tamil Nadu. The stone for making the idol of Kannagi was
brought by him after his Himalayan expedition. The consecration
ceremony was attended by many princes including Gajabhagu II
from Sri Lanka.
 chera
The Chera or the Kerala country was situated to the west and north of the land of the Pandyas. It included the
narrow strip of land between the sea and the mountains and covered portions of both Kerala and Tamilnadu.
In the early centuries of the Christrian era, the Chera country was as important as the country of the Cholas and
the Pandyas. It owed its importance to trade with the Romans. The Romans set up two regiments at Muziris
identical with Cranganore in the Chera country to protect their interests. It is said that they also built there a
temple of Augustus.
The history of the Cheras was marked by continuous fight with the Cholas and the Pandyas. One of the earliest
and better known Chera rulers was Udiyanjeral (A.D. 130). The titles Vanavaramban and Perunjaran Udiyan are
applied to him by the poet Mudinagarayar in Puram.
The son of Udiyanjeral was Nedunjeral Adan who won a naval victory against some local enemy on the Malabar
Coast, and took captive several Yavana traders. He won victories against seven crowned kings, and thus reached
the superior rank of the adhiraja.
He was called Imayavaramban, he who had the Himalayas as his boundary. He fought a war with the
contemporary Chola king in which both the monarchs lost their lives and their queens performed Sati.
According to the Chera poets their greatest king was Senguttuvan, the Red or Good Chera. He routed his rivals and
established his cousin securely on the throne. It is said that he invaded the north and crossed the Ganga. But all
this seems to be exaggerated. Pattini cult, that is the worship of Kannagi as the ideal wife, was started by him.
Senguttuvan was succeeded by his half-brother Perunjeral Adan (180 A.D.), who was a contemporary of the great
Chola monarch Karikala. We learn from the poems Puram and Aham, that while fighting against the Cholas in the
battle of Venni, Perunjeral Adan received a wound in the back and expiated the disgrace by starving himself to
death on the battlefield.
After the second century A.D. the Chera power declined, and we have nothing of its history until the eighth
century A. D. The fame of the Cheras lies in the liberal patronage to Tamil poets and promotion of trade with
Romans. The Chera had a number of good ports along the western coast such as Tondi and Musiri or Muziris
(Muziris was a great centre of Indo-Roman trade). The capital of the Cheras was Vanji.
 cholas
The Chola kingdom of the Sangam period extended from modern Tiruchi district to southern Andhra
Pradesh. Their capital was first located at Uraiyur and then shifted to Puhar. Karikala was a famous king of
the Sangam Cholas. Pattinappalai portrays his early life and his military conquests. In the Battle of Venni
he defeated the mighty confederacy consisting of the Cheras, Pandyas and eleven minor chieftains. This
event is mentioned in many Sangam poems. Vahaipparandalai was another important battle fought by him
in which nine enemy chieftains submitted before him. Karikalas military achievements made him the
overlord of the whole Tamil country. Trade and commerce flourished during his reign period. He was
responsible for the reclamation of forest lands and brought them under cultivation thus adding prosperity
to the people. He also built Kallanai across the river Kaveri and also constructed many irrigation tanks.
 chola
The Chola kingdom which came to be called Cholamandalam (Coromandel) in early medieval times was situated to
the north-east of the Pandyan territory, between the Pennar and the Velar Rivers. Their capital was first at Uraiyur,
a place famous for cotton trade and later shifted to Puhar or Kaveripattiram.
It seems that in the middle of the second century B.C. a Chola king named Elara conquered Sri Lanka and ruled
over it for nearly 50 years. A firmer history of the Cholas begins in the second century A. D. with their famous king
Karikala which means, The man with the charred leg. He was a contemporary of the Chera king Perunjeral Adan.
Karikala was a very competent ruler and a great warrior.
He defeated the Chera king Perunjeral. One of his early achievements was the victory at Venni, 15 miles to the
east of Tanjore; his victory meant the breakup of the widespread confederacy that had been formed against him.
He founded Puhar and constructed 160 km of embankment along the Kaveri River. This was built with the labour
of 12,000 slaves who were brought as capitves from Sri Lanka. Puhar was a great centre of trade and commerce,
and excavations show that it had a large dock. The Cholas maintained an efficient navy.
Under Karikalas successors the Chola power rapidly declined. Two sons of Karikala ruled from two different
capitals the elder from Uraiyur and the younger one from Puhar. The last great Chola ruler after Karikala was
Nedunjelian who successfully fought against the Pandyas and the Cheras both, but was ultimately killed in battle.
Their two neighbouring powers, the Cheras and the Pandyas, extended at the cost of the Cholas. What remained
of the Cholas power was almost wiped out by the attacks of the Pallavas from the north.
The fortunes of the Cholas suffered a serious setback, when, according to a tradition recorded in Manimekalaia
good part of the port town of Puhar was engulfed by the sea in terrific tidal waves, during the reign of the later
Chola king Killivalavan.
 The heartland of the Cholas was the fertile valley of the Kaveri River, but they ruled a significantly
larger area at the height of their power from the later half of the 9th century till the beginning of
the 13th century. The whole country south of the Tungabhadra was united and held as one state for
a period of two centuries and more.[1] Under Rajaraja Chola I and his successors Rajendra Chola
I, Rajadhiraja Chola, Virarajendra Chola and Kulothunga Chola I the dynasty became a military,
economic and cultural power in South Asia andSouth-East Asia.[2] The power of the new empire was
proclaimed to the eastern world by the expedition to the Ganges which Rajendra Chola I undertook
and by the naval raids on cities of the maritime empire of Srivijaya, as well as by the repeated
embassies to China.[3] The Chola fleet represented the zenith of ancient Indian sea power.
During the period 10101200, the Chola territories stretched from the islands of the Maldives in
the south to as far north as the banks of the Godavari River in Andhra Pradesh.[4]Rajaraja Chola
conquered peninsular South India, annexed parts of which is now Sri Lanka and occupied the
islands of the Maldives. Rajendra Chola sent a victorious expedition to North India that touched the
river Ganges and defeated the Pala ruler of Pataliputra, Mahipala. He also successfully invaded
cities of Srivijaya of Malaysia and Indonesia.[5] The Chola dynasty went into decline at the beginning
of the 13th century with the rise of the Pandyan Dynasty, which ultimately caused their
downfall.[6][7]
 Chola art
The Cholas continued the temple-building traditions of the Pallava dynasty and contributed significantly to the
Dravidian temple design.[164] They built a number of Shiva temples along the banks of the river Kaveri. The
template for these and future temples was formulated by Aditya I and Parantaka.[165][166][167] The Chola temple
architecture has been appreciated for its magnificence as well as delicate workmanship, ostensibly following the
rich traditions of the past bequeathed to them by the Pallava Dynasty.[168] Ferguson[who?] says that "the Chola
artists conceived like giants and finished like jewelers".[168] A new development in Chola art that characterised the
Dravidian architecture in later times was the addition of a huge gateway called gopuram to the enclosure of the
temple, which had gradually took its form and attained maturity under the Pandya Dynasty.[168] The Chola school
of art also spread to Southeast Asia and influenced the architecture and art of Southeast Asia.[169][170]
Temple building received great impetus from the conquests and the genius of Rajaraja Chola and his son Rajendra
Chola I.[171] The maturity and grandeur to which the Chola architecture had evolved found expression in the two
temples of Thanjavur and Gangaikondacholapuram. The magnificent Shiva temple of Thanjavur, completed around
1009, is a fitting memorial to the material achievements of the time of Rajaraja. The largest and tallest of all Indian
temples of its time, it is at the apex of South Indian architecture. The temple of Gangaikondacholisvaram
at Gangaikondacholapuram, the creation of Rajendra Chola, was intended to excel its predecessor. Completed
around 1030, only two decades after the temple at Thanjavur and in the same style, the greater elaboration in its
appearance attests the more affluent state of the Chola Empire under Rajendra.[164][172][page needed] The Brihadisvara
Temple, the temple of Gangaikondacholisvaram and the Airavatesvara Temple at Darasuram were declared
as World Heritage Sites by the UNESCO and are referred to as the Great living Chola temples.[173]
The Chola period is also remarkable for its sculptures and bronzes.[174][175][176] Among the existing specimens in
museums around the world and in the temples of South India may be seen many fine figures of Shiva in various
forms, such as Vishnu and his consort Lakshmi, and the Shaivite saints.[164] Though conforming generally to the
iconographic conventions established by long tradition, the sculptors worked with great freedom in the 11th and
the 12th centuries to achieve a classic grace and grandeur. The best example of this can be seen in the form
ofNataraja the Divine Dancer.[1
 pandyas
The Pandyas ruled over the present day southern Tamil Nadu. Their capital
was Madurai. The earliest kings of the Pandyan dynasty were Nediyon,
Palyagasalai Mudukudumi Peruvaludhi and Mudathirumaran. There were
two Neduncheliyans. The first one was known as Aryappadai Kadantha
Neduncheliyan (one who won victories over the Aryan forces). He was
responsible for the execution of Kovalan for which Kannagi burnt Madurai.
The other was Talaiyalanganattu Cheruvenra (He who won the battle at
Talaiyalanganam) Neduncheliyan. He was praised by Nakkirar and
Mangudi Maruthanar. He wore this title after defeating his enemies at the
Battle of Talaiyalanganam, which is located in the Tanjore district. By this
victory Neduncheliyan gained control over the entire Tamil Nadu.
Maduraikkanji written by Mangudi Maruthanar describes the socio-
economic condition of the Pandya country including the flourishing
seaport of Korkai. The last famous Pandyan king was Uggira Peruvaludhi.
The Pandyan rule during the Sangam Age began to decline due to the
invasion of the Kalabhras
 Medival pandhya 920
List of kings are given below;
Kadungon (590620)[34]
Maravarman Avani Culamani (590620)
Cezhiyan Cendan (620640)
Arikesari Maravarman Nindraseer Nedumaaran (670710)
Kochadaiyan Ranadhiran (710735)
Arikesari Parankusa Maravarman Rajasimha I (735765)[34]
Jatila Parantaka (765815)[34]
Rasasingan II (790800)
Varagunan I (800830)
Srimara Srivallabha (815862)[34]
Varagunavarman II (862880)
Parantaka Viranarayana (880900)
Maravarman Rajasimha II (900920)[34]
 pandhyas
After the close of the Sangam age, the first Pandyan empire was established by Kadungon in the 6th
century by defeating the Kalabhras. The following chronological list of the Pandya emperors is
based on an inscription found on the Vaigai riverbeds. Succeeding kings assumed the titles of
"Sadayavarman" and "Maaravarman" alternately, denoting themselves as followers of Lord
Sadaiyan (Sankan(r)/Sivan) and Lord Thiru Maal respectively.
After the defeat of the Kalabhras, the Pandya kingdom grew steadily in power and territory. With
the Cholas in obscurity, the Tamil country was divided between the Pallavas and the Pandyas, the
river Kaveri being the frontier between them.
After Vijayalaya Chola conquered Thanjavur by defeating the Muttarayar chieftains who were part
of Pandya family tree around 850, the Pandyas went into a period of decline. They were constantly
harassing their Chola overlords by occupying their territories. Parantaka I invaded the Pandya
territories and defeated Rajasimha III. However, the Pandyas did not wholly submit to the Cholas
despite loss of power, territory and prestige. They tried to forge various alliances with the Cheras
and the Kings of Lanka and tried to engage the Cholas in war to free themselves from Chola
supremacy. But right from the times of Parantaka I to the early 12th century up to the times
of Kulottunga Chola I the Pandyas could not overpower the Cholas who right from 8801215
remained the most powerful empire spread over South India, Deccan and the Eastern and Western
Coast of India during this period
 pandyas
The Pandya territory occupied the southern-most and the south-eastern portion of
the Indian peninsula, and it roughly included the modern districts of Tinnevelly,
Ramnad and Madurai in Tamilnadu. It had its capital at Madurai. The Pandyas are
rightly famous for patronising the poets and scholars of the Tamil Sangams.
The earliest known Pandyan ruler was Mudukudumi who is mentioned in the
Sangam text as a great conqueror. The most reputed Pandyan ruler was
Nedunjhelian, who ruled from Madurai and was a great poet.
According to Silappadikaram, Nedunjhelian, in a fit of passion, ordered without
judicial enquiry the execution of Kovalan who was accused of theft of the queens
anklet. When Kovalans wife proved her husbands innocence, the king was struck
with remorse and died of shock on the throne.
The Pandyan kings profited from trade with the Roman Empire and sent embassies
to the Roman emperor Augustus. The Pandyan port Korkai was a great centres of
trade and commerce, another port was Saliyur. The brahmanas enjoyed
considerable influence, and the Pandya kings performed Vedic sacrifices in the
early centuries of the Christian era.
 Minor chieftain
The minor chieftains played a significant role
in the Sangam period. Among them Pari, Kari,
Ori, Nalli, Pegan, Ay and Adiyaman were
popular for their philanthropy and patronage
of Tamil poets. Therefore, they were known as
Kadai Yelu Vallalgal. Although they were
subordinate to the Chera, Chola and Pandya
rulers, they were powerful and popular in
their respective regions.
 Sangam polity
Hereditary monarchy was the form of government during the Sangam period. The
king had also taken the advice of his minister, court-poet and the imperial court or
avai. The Chera kings assumed titles like Vanavaramban, Vanavan, Kuttuvan,
Irumporai and Villavar, the Chola kings like Senni, Valavan and Killi and the Pandya
kings Thennavar and Minavar. Each of the Sangam dynasties had a royal emblem
carp for the Pandyas, tiger for the Cholas and bow for the Cheras. The imperial
court or avai was attended by a number of chiefs and officials. The king was
assisted by a large body of officials who were divided into five councils. They were
ministers (amaichar), priests (anthanar), military commanders (senapathi), envoys
(thuthar) and spies (orrar). The military administration was also efficiently
organized during the Sangam Age. Each ruler had a regular army and their
respective Kodimaram (tutelary tree).
Land revenue was the chief source of states income while custom duty was also
imposed on foreign trade. The Pattinappalai refers to the custom officials
employed in the seaport of Puhar. Booty captured in wars was also a major income
to the royal treasury. Roads and highways were well maintained and guarded night
and day to prevent robbery and smuggling.
 Sangam polity
From the earliest times Tamilham had known only three
major kingdoms the Cheras, the Cholas and the Pandyas.
The Pandyas were first mentioned by Megasthenes, who
says that their kingdom was celebrated for pearls.
He also speaks of its being ruled by a woman, which may
suggest some matriarchal influence in the Pandya society.
In the Major Rock Edict II Asoka mentions of the three
kingdoms Pandyas, Cholas and Cheras as neighbours.
The Hathigumpha inscription of Kharavelea contains the
early epigraphic reference to the kingdoms of the Tamil
country, where he is said to have destroyed a confederacy
of Tamil states Tramiradesa Sanghatam. However, the
chief source for the Sangam period is the Sangam
literature.
 Sangam administration
The king was the very centre and embodiment of administration. He was called Ko, Mannam,
Vendan, Korravan or Iraivan. Though hereditary monarch was the prevailing form of government,
disputed successions and civil wars were not unknown. The court of the crowned monarch was
called avai.
The ideal of the conquering king (Vijigishu) was accepted and acted on. The Kings birthday
(Perunal) was celebrated every year. Kings assumed several titles. For example, the Pandyas were
known as Minavar, Kavuriyar, Panchavar, Tennar, Seliyar, Marar, Valudi.etc the Cholas called them-
selves Sennis, Sembiyas, Valavan and Killi, and the Cheras had titles like Vanavar, Villavar, Kudavar,
Kuttuvar, Poraiyar and so on.
The royal emblem of the Pandyas was the carp (fish), the bow of the Cheras and of the Cholas was
the tiger. The sabha or manram of the king in the capital was the highest court of justice. The king
was assisted by a large body of officials, who were divided into five assemblies:
(1) Amaichchar or ministers,
(2) Purohitas or priests,
(3) Senapati or military commanders,
(4) Dutar or envoys and
(5) Arrar or spies.
Provincial and local administration
The entire kingdom was called mandalam. The Chola
mandalam, Pandya mandalam and the Chera
mandalam were the original major mandalam. Below
the mandalam was a major division, nadu (province).
The ur was a town which was variously described as a
big village (perar), a small village (sirur) or an old
village (mudur). Pattinam was the name for a coastal
town and Puharwas the harbour area.
The administration of nadus was generally carried on
by hereditary chiefs. The village was the fundamental
unit of administration which was administered by local
assemblies called manrams.
 Revenue administration
The commonest and possibly the largest source of revenue
was land-tax called Karai, but the share of the agricultural
proudce, claimed and collected by the king,is not specified.
The ma and veli was the measure of land and kalam as
measure of grain. A well-known unit of territory yielding tax
was a variyam (Vari meant tax) and an officer in-charge of
collecting the tax from that unit of land was called a Variyar.
Tributes paid by the feudatories and war booty (irai)
constituted a considerable part of royal resources. Trade
local and long-distance, constituted a very important
source of royal revenue. Tolls and custom duties were ulgu
or sungum. The duties to be paid to the king were generally
known as Kadamai or Paduvadu.
 Military administration
Apparently out of the taxes collected from the
peasantry, the state maintained a rudimentary army
and it consisted of chariots drawn by oxen, of
elephants, cavalry and infantry. Elephants played an
important part in war. Horses were imported by sea
into the Pandyan kingdom.
The institution of virakkal or nadukul (hero-stone),
which was a practice of erecting monuments for the
dead soldiers and worshiping them, was prevalent at
that time. The institution of Kavalmaram or Kadimaram
was also prevalent. Under it, each ruler had a great
tree in his palace as a symbol of power.
 Sangam economy
The Sangam economy was simple and mostly self-sufficient. Agriculture was the main occupation and the chief crops were rice, cotton,
ragi, sugarcane pepper, ginger, turmeric, cardamom, cinnamon etc. Weaving, ship-building, metal working, carpentry, rope-making,
ornament-making, making of ivory products, tanning etc were some of the handicrafts, which were widely practiced.
The market place was known as avanam. This period also witnessed the emergence of various towns like Puhar, Uraiyur, Vanji, Tondi,
Muzuris, Madurai, Kanchi, etc. Industry and crafts was given a fillip by a rising demand in the foreign markets.
Trade, both inland and foreign, was well organised and briskly carried our throughout the period Internal trade was brisk, caravans of
merchants with carts and pack-animals carried their merchandise from place to place, Barter played a large part in all transactions and
salt was an important commodity of trade. The Sangam period witnessed the rise of maritime activity.
External trade was carried on between South India and Hellenistic kingdom of Egypt and Arabia as well as the Malay Archipelago. The
author of the Periplus of the Erythrean Sea (75 A.D.) gives the most valuable information about the trade between India and the Roman
Empire. He mentions the port of Naura (Cannanore) Tyndis (Tondi), Muzuris (Musiri, Cranganore), and Nelcynda as the leading ones on
the west coast.
Other ports of South India were Balita (Varkalai), Comari, Colchi, Puhar (Khaberis of Ptolemy), Saliyur, Poduca (Arikamedu) and Sopatma
(Markanam). A landmark in the development of communications was the discovery of the monsoon winds by the Greek sailor Hippalus
in around A.D. 46-47.
This led to increase in volume of trade. Large vessels made up of single logs called Sangara and very large vessels, called Colondia made
voyages. The Periplus of the Erythraen Sea, written by an anonymous Greek navigator, gives details of Indian exports to the Roman
Empire. The main exports were: pepper, pearls, ivory, silk, spike-nard, malabathrum, diamonds, saffron, precious stone and tortoise
shell.
It also mentions Argaru (Uraiyur) as the place to which were sent all the pearls gathered on the coast and from which were exported
muslins called agraritic. Silk, which was supplied by Indian merchants to the Roman Empire, was considered so important that the
Roman emperor Aurelian declared it to be worth its weight in gold.
The Roman need for spices could not be met entirely by local supply; this brought Indian traders into contact with south-east Asia. In
return for her exports, India imported from the Roman empire such commodities as topaz, tin cloth, linen, antimony, crude glass,
copper, tin, lead, wine, orpiment and wheat. The Romans also exported to India wine amphorae and red glazed Arretine ware which
have been found at Arikamedu near Pondicherry. They also sent to India a large number of gold and silver coins.
Connected with the phenomenon of trade was the growth of money economy in the early centuries. The imported coins were mostly
used as bullions. The large quantities of gold and silver coins struck by all the Roman emperors beginning from the reign of Augustus
(and that of Tiberius) down to Nero (54-58 A. D.) found in the interior of Tamil land, testify to the extent of the trade and the presence
of Roman settlers in the Tamil country
 Sangam society and religion
The society in the southern kingdoms chiefly consisted of agriculturists or those who depended indirectly on the
land. Besides, the peasants there were landless labourers, carpenters, gold-smiths, hunters and fishermen.
The Brahmanas came there much later form the northern India. But in the ancient times, they followed neither
the Varna system nor the Ashram system. Broadly speaking, there were chiefly two classes of people in the early
Tamil society those who tilled the land themselves and those who got it tilled by others. The latter were
wealthier and this very fact introduced inequalities in the social system. Gradually, the Varna System also started.
The people lived chiefly in villages. Mostly they were poor who lived in huts and humbler structures. The forest
tribal were very poor. The rich lived in houses of bricks and mortar. The town-people were generally rich and they
led happy and prosperous life. The towns were surrounded by a wall for protection from invaders. Forts were also
built.
The women in the Tamil society were free. Polygamy was practiced, though on a limited scale. Prostitutes and
dancing girls lived in towns. Dhoti and turban were the chief attire. Women were fond of ornaments. The chief
diet consisted of meat and rice. They also drank wine.
In the beginning, Brahamanism grew popular in these kingdoms, though its influence was limited. The kings
performed Vedic Yajnas and the Brahmanas held discourses with the Jain and the Buddhist scholars. The four chief
deities worshipped by them were Shiva, Vishnu, Balram and Krishna. Marugan was the local God.
During Chandraguptas reign Jainism spread in the South. In this period, the Buddhism was on the decline. The
growing popularity of Shaivism and Vaishnavism, however, caused a setback to Jainism. The people were tolerant
and the followers of the various religions lived together peacefully. The practice of cremating the dead had
started.
Kalabhars dynasty 250-600
 introduction
The Kalabhras dynasty (Tamil: ''' ''') ruled over the entire Ancient Tamil
country between the 3rd and the 6th century in an era of South Indian history called
the Kalabhra interregnum. The Kalabhras, possibly Buddhists, displaced the kingdoms of the early
Cholas, early Pandayas and Chera dynasties by a revolt. The Kalabhras put an end to
the brahmanadeya rights granted to the brahmans in numerous villages across southern India.
Information about the origin and reign of the Kalabhras is scarce. They left neither artifacts nor
monuments, and the only sources of information are scattered mentions
in Buddhist and Jain literature. Finally, the Kalabhras were defeated by the join efforts of the
Pallavas, Pandyas and Chalukyas Badami.
The identification of the Kalabhras is difficult. The chieftains of this tribe mentioned in Sangam
literature are Tiraiyan of Pavattiri and Pulli of Vengadam or Tirupati. The Kalavar must have been
dislodged from their habitat near Tirupati by political events of the third century, viz. the fall of
the Satavahanas and the rise of Pallavas, resulting in political confusion in Tondaimandalam.[1] P.T
Srinivasa Iyengar identifies them with the Tamil Kalappalar clan. Supposedly they migrated from
the Karnataka.
The history of Cholas of Uraiyur (Tiruchirappalli) is exceedingly obscure from fourth to the ninth
century, chiefly owing to the occupation of their country by the Kalabhras. Buddhadatta, the great
writer in Pali, belonged to Uraiyur. He mentions his contemporary, King Achchutavikranta of the
Kalabharakula, as ruling over the Chola country from Kaveripattinam. He was a Buddhist. Tamil
literary tradition refers to an Achchuta who kept the Chera, Chola and Pandya rulers in captivity. On
the basis of the contemporaneity of Buddhadatta with Buddhaghosha, Achchuta may be assigned
to the fifth century. Thus, after the Sangam age, the Cholas were forced into obscurity by the
Kalabhras, who disturbed the placid political conditions of the Tamil country.[2]
 continued
In the mid fourth century in North India the Sathavaahana Empire reached its maximum territorial expansion with Thondalmandalam and it's capital
Kanchipuram being the southern limits of his empire. The Sathavahana king appointed the Andhra-Pallava kings Sivaskandavarman and his brother
Vishnu Gopa his allys ruling from the Bellary region of Andhra Pradesh consecutively as his viceroys of the southern region of his empire.
With the weakening of the Sathavaahana Empire and the rise of Gupta kings in North India, the king Samudra Gupta invaded and captured many
regions of the Sathavaahana's including the Thondaimandalam and its capital the Kanchipuram down south in the year A.D.355. He appears to have
handed over the region to its traditional kings the Tamil Thiraiyar dynasty probably under a treaty.
Taking the opportunity with no North Indian empires holding sway in the South, the Kalabhra dynasty known as 'Vadukak Karunaader'
(Vaduka=Andhra) tracing their origin from Andhra and ruling from Kolar region of Karnataka - around Nandhi hills also known as the Kalabhra hills,
showed interest in the conquer of the Tamil countries down south leaving the Thondaimandalam and it's capital Kanchipuram being the territories of
their ally the Tamil Thiraiyar dynasty of this region.
During the the Paandiya country of Tamil Nadu was ruled by king Palyaaka Muthukudumi Peruvaluthi while the Chola country and Chera country
were ruled by kings whose name have still not ben established.
In the year around A.D.355 the king Achchutha Vikkiraanthakan of the Kalabhra dynasty (Kalappirar) invaded Tamil Nadu with a sea of warriors on
elephants, horses and foot soldiers with spears - spread all over defeated the Chola king and captured the Chola country with their capitals the
Uraiyur and Kaviripoompattinam. They then proceeded towards the south to Pandiya (Paandiya) Nadu defeated the king Palyaaka Muthukudumi
Peruvaluthi and captured his capital city the Mathuraapuri (Mathurai). Subsequently he also defeated the Chera king (at Vanchi Nagar) and spread his
authority over most parts of then Tamil Nadu (MuthThamil Nadu). It appears the Kalabhra king Atchchutha Vikranthahan kept the three kings the
Chera Chola and Pandiya in captivity at Thillai (present Chithambaram).
With his capture of Mathurai the Karnataka king gradually favoured the spread of the Jain religion (Samana Samayam) in this region and prevented
the Saivite religious practices in Mathurai. They established a Sangam under the Jain monk Vajjira Nanthi at Mathurai probably to promote Jainism
through Tamil Lauguage.
 literature
The period of Kalabhras was marked by the ascendancy
of Buddhism, and probably also of Jainism. It was
characterized by considerable literary activity in Tamil.
Most of the works grouped under the head, 'The
Eighteen Minor works' might have been written during
this period as also the Cilappadhikaram, Manimekalai
and other works. Many of the authors were
characterised as belonging to the `heretical' sects
(meaning Buddhists and Jains). However, the great
Tamil lexicographer Vaiyapuri Pillai had ascribed later
dates to many of these works. This theory would
undermine the link between the Kalabhras and the
Eighteen Minor works.[3]
 religion
It is known that the Kalabhras as patronized Hinduism,
Buddhism and Jainism.[4]
The late Kalabras appear to have
been Shaivite and Vaishnavite. Scholar F.E. Hardy traced the
palace ceremony to a Vishnu or Mayon temple to the rule
of the Kalabras.[5] Scholar Alice Justina Thinakaran writes
that perhaps they were Shaivite Hindu, Jain or Buddhist.
They are known for patronizing Skanda or Subramanya, the
Hindu god. They imprinted his image on their 5th-century
coins, especially from Kaveripumpapattinam rulers.[6]
King Achuta had worshiped Vaisnava Tirumal, and some
scholars believe this means that the Kalabhras patronized
Hinduism.[7]
 Fall of kalbras
The rule of Kalabhras of South India was
ended by the counter invasions of Pandyas,
Chalukyas and Pallavas. There are other
references to the Kalabhras in Pallava
and Chalukya inscriptions. They were
conquered by Pallava Simhavishnu and
Pandya Kadungon.
 Who were the Pallavas?
Pallavas are originaly connected to the Pahlavas of Iran. This Pahlava tribe of Indo-Iranian descent migrated
Southward and first settled in Krishna River valley. This region is called Pallavanadu even today. Pallavas later
extended their territory and established their capital in Kancheepuram. The Early Pallavas claimed to be Brahmins
of Bharadwaja gotra. They styled themselves as Brahma Ksnatriyas ( Brahmins in Pursuit of arms). Later by the
fifth century CE, the Pallavas were regarded as Kshatriyas. They were followers of the Brahmanical religion.
It is easy to see that the Kalabhras were actually defeated and displaced by the Pallavas of Syrian origin. Though they were
Brahmins they became a terrorist group to take over the Kalabhra Empire. It was this dynasty who gave refuge to the
Gnostics from Syria and were the architects of modern Vaishnavism. Pallavas are famed for their temples which are spread
all over Tamil Nadu.
A Sangam Period classic, Manimekhalai, attributes the origin of the first Pallava King from a
liaison between the daughter of a Naga king of Manipallava named Pilli Valai (Pilivalai) with
a Chola king, Killivalavan, out of which union was born a prince, who was lost in ship wreck
and found with a twig (pallava) of Cephallandra indica (Tondai) around his ankle and hence
named Tondai-man. Another version states "Pallava" was born from the union of the
Brahmin Asvathama with a Naga Princess also supposedly supported in the sixth verse of the
Bahur plates which states "From Asvathama was born the king named Pallava
 Doubtful origin of pallavas
The origin of the Pallavas is still a mystery as no reliable
information is available. It is believed that they entered
India from the south. Some scholars also believe that the
Pallavas were from the Pahleves of Partisans, and migrated
to south. But again, there is no strong evidence to prove
this.
According to Srinivas Aiyangar, the Pallavas were part of the ancient Naga
people. They first lived in the Tondaimandalam districts around Madras,
and later won Tanjore and Trichinopoly districts. The Pallavas were the
prime enemies of Tamil kings, and today palava means rogue in Tamil
language.
Also it is believed that the origin of the Pallavas was from a Chola prince
and the Naga princess of Manipallavam. The princess gave birth to a son
who was made the king of Tondaimandalam. The dynasty was named after
his mothers homeland. Even in the literature of the Sangam era, the
Pallavas as Tondaiyar have been described. But this theory is also debated.
 Early pallavas
Early Pallavas[edit]
Simhavarman I 275300
Skandavarman
Visnugopa 350 355
Kumaravishnu I 350370
Skandavarman II 370385
Viravarman 385400
Skandavarman III 400436
Simhavarman II 436460
Skandavarman IV 460480
Nandivarman I 480510
Kumaravishnu II 510530
Buddhavarman 530540
Kumaravishnu III 540550
Simhavarman III 550560
 LATTER PALLAVAS
The incursion of the Kalabhras and the confusion in the Tamil country was broken by
the Pandya Kadungon and the Pallava Simhavishnu.[20] Mahendravarman I extended the Pallava
Kingdom and was one of the greatest sovereigns. Some of the most ornate monuments and
temples in southern India, carved out of solid rock, were introduced under his rule. He also wrote
the play Mattavilasa Prahasana.[21]
The Pallava kingdom began to gain both in territory and influence and were a regional power by the
end of the 6th century, defeating kings of Ceylon and mainland Tamilakkam.[22]Narasimhavarman
I and Paramesvaravarman I were the kings who stand out with glorious achievements in both
military and architectural spheres. Narasimhavarman II built the Shore Temple.
Simhavishnu 575600 [21]
Mahendravarman I 600630 [21]
Narasimhavarman I (Mamalla) 630668 [21]
Mahendravarman II 668672
Paramesvaravarman I 670695 [21]
Narasimhavarman II (Raja Simha) 695722 [21]
Paramesvaravarman II 705710
Nandivarman II (Pallavamalla) 730795 [21]
Dantivarman 795846 [21]
Nandivarman III 846869 [21]
Aparajitavarman 879897 [21]
 Language and writing system
All the early Pallava royal inscriptions are
either in Sanskrit or in Prakrit language.
Under the Pallava dynasty, a unique form of
Southern Brahmi script developed. Around the
6th century, it was exported eastwards and
influenced the genesis of almost all Southeast
Asian scripts
 Administration
Most of the Pallavas kings were great scholars who were given titles like
Maharajadhiraja, Dharma-maharjadhiraja, and Agnistomavajpeya. For
their assistance, the ministerial council was constituted. All the matters of
the villages were looked after by the council or sabha. Informal gathering
in the villages were known as urar and were used to assist village courts.
Also, minor criminal cases were resolved at village-level courts. Towns and
districts had judicial courts, with the king as the supreme authority of
justice. All land was owned by the king. Villages with huge inter-caste
population used to pay taxes to the king. In the Brahmadeya village, the
entire land was either given to a single Brahmin or a group of Brahmins,
who were exempted from paying royal taxes. Also, there was one unique
category of land known as the sripatti or tank land. The village tank
constructed by the villagers used to get maintenance funds from this land.
There were two types of taxes the one paid to the state, and the one
collected in the villages and spent for the need in the village
 Architecture style of palavas
Pallava temples were made in four distinct styles. These are:
Mahendra style: This is a cave-style architecture and can be seen in the Ekambaranatha (Kanchipuram) Temple of
the Pallavas.
Mamalla style: These are monolithic temples made from single stone. There are seven Pagodas situated near
Mahabalipuram that display an outstanding quality of this Pallava art.
Rajasimha style: The Kailasha Temple of Kanchi displays this style. The temple has a pyramidal tower and
its mandapam is made in a flat-roof style.
Aparajita style: This resembles with the Chola architecture style, being more elaborate. A few temples at
Dalavanur display this style of architecture. Also, one can see beautiful figures of Pallava kings and queens.
The Pallavas contribution to literature was also great. Bharavi and Dandin lived in the court of the Pallava. Dandin
had written many poems and one of these is so unique that if read normally it tells the story of the Ramayana and
if read in the reverse order then narrates the study of Mahabharata
he Pallavas were instrumental in the transition from rock-cut architecture to stone temples. The earliest examples
of Pallava constructions are rock-cut temples dating from 610690 and structural temples between 690900. A
number of rock-cut cave temples bear the inscription of the Pallava king, Mahendravarman I and his successors.[26]
Among the accomplishments of the Pallava architecture are the rock-cut temples at Mahabalipuram. There are
excavated pillared halls and monolithic shrines known as rathas in Mahabalipuram. Early temples were mostly
dedicated to Shiva. The Kailasanatha temple in Kanchipuram and the Shore Temple built by Narasimhavarman II,
rock cut temple inMahendravadi by Mahendravarman are fine examples of the Pallava style temples.[27] The
temple of Nalanda Gedige in Kandy, Sri Lanka is another. The famous Tondeswaram temple ofTenavarai and the
ancient Koneswaram temple of Trincomalee were patronized and structurally developed by the Pallavas in the 7th
century.[citation needed]
 Palavas society
The history of the Pallavas is very complex and covers about four centuries. The
period of Pallavas is significant as it completed the Aryanisation of southern India.
The North Indian Dharma Sastras gained full authority during the Pallavas reign.
The University of Kanchi was an important seat of education in the South. This has
been mentioned in the writings of Hiuen-Tsang, a Chinese traveler.
Most of the kings of Pallava dynasty were orthodox Hindus who worshipped Lord
Shiva. Some Jain monasteries were destroyed by Mahendravarman as he was
fanatical about Jainism. Like Jainism, Buddhism also lost its appeal during this time.
But overall the Pallavas were flexible towards other religions and beliefs.
Local traditions were replaced by the Vedic traditions. As Brahmins had the
knowledge of the Vedas, so they achieved superior status.
Early education was influenced by Jains and Buddhists. Madurai and Kanchi were
the main centers for Jain institutes but soon these were replaced by Brahminical
institutions. Popularity of mathematics increased in the 8th century. The main
medium of instructions in all the schools was Sanskrit
 Decline of palavas
The Pallavas were invaded by the Chalukyan
army and posed a major threat to its capital,
Kanchipuram. The Pallava power came to an
end with the defeat of their last king,
Aparajitavarman, by the Chola king close to
the 9th century.