RAINWATER HARVESTING

CSE SITE VISIT

12TH OF JUNE, 2015
VIKAAS KUMAR – AMITY SCHOOL OF ARCHITECTURE
AND PLANNING,LUCKNOW
SOME FREQUENTLY USED TERMS:
 PERMEABLE – A material is known permeable if it allows liquid
or gases to pass through it.
 AQUIFER - An aquifer is an underground layer of water-
bearing permeable rock or unconsolidated materials (gravel,
sand, or silt) from which groundwater can be extracted using a
water well. The study of water flow in aquifers and the
characterization of aquifers is called hydrogeology.
 CATCHMENT - The action of collecting water, especially the
collection of rainfall over a natural drainage area.
 CATCHMENT AREA – The area from which rainfall flows into
the rainwater harvesting system.
 RUNOFF – When water from rainfall is unable to pass through
the surface due to any reason such as permeability is slow or
non permeable surface and water flows over the surface is
known as runoff.
 RUNOFF COEFFICIENT - The runoff coefficient (C) is a
dimensionless coefficient relating the amount of runoff to the
amount of precipitation received. It is a larger value for areas
with low infiltration and high runoff (pavement, steep gradient),
and lower for permeable, well vegetated areas (forest, flat land).
CSE (CENTER FOR SCIENCE AND
ENVIRONMENT )
 CSE is a non-profit public interest
research and advocacy
organisation based in Tughlakabad
Institutional Area, New Delhi.
 It was established in 1980 and
works as a research institute on
environmental development issues
in India, Poor planning, Climate
shifts devastating India’s
Sundarbans and advocates for
policy changes and better
implementation of the exiting
policies.
 CSE uses knowledge based CSE CAMPUS, NEW DELHI
activism to create awareness about
the problems and propose
sustainable solutions.
 CSE RWH INITIATIVE
 CSE started its work on water issues in the 80’s,
when it was becoming apparent that the water
management paradigm based on exploitation of
surface and groundwater resources even as it
neglected capturing rain to recharge or for direct use
would lead the country to a huge water crisis.
 CSE has been promoting the concept of water
harvesting, particularly in urban areas , as a
technological solution that can be adopted by all.
 CSE initiated an advocacy programme to promote
the concept of community based water harvesting
and make it a national movement.
 It produced simple literature and organised dozens
of meetings to explain the principles and practice of
rainwater harvesting.
MODEL INSTITUTIONS
 For urban audiences
CSE’s programme to
build model
institutions shows
people how RWH is
done. For instance
CSE building
captures every drop
of rain that falls on its
premises.
CSE’s RWH SYSTEM
 WHAT IS RAINWATER
HARVESTING ??
 Rainwater harvesting(RWH) is collection and
storage of rain water that runs off from
surfaces such as rooftops, parks, roads, open
grounds, etc. This water run off can either be
stored or recharged into the ground water. A
rain water harvesting system consists of the
following components:
1. Catchment
2. Conveyance
3. First flush
4. Filter
5. Storage tanks or recharge structures.
What is the need of RWH?
 Rain may soon be the only source of
clean water. Rainwater harvesting
system use the principle of conserving
water where it falls and helps meet the
following benefits:
1. Helps meet the ever increasing demand
of water.
2. Improves quality and quantity of
groundwater.
3. Reduce flooding.
Where can it be done?
 It can be built anywhere where there is surface
available for catchment to be built where water can
be captured and stored or recharged into ground.
Whereas CSE has examples from almost all the
sectors where this system is adopted. Such as:
1. Individual homes
2. Colonies
3. Apartments
4. Institutions
5. School/college/universities
6. Clubs
7. Hospitals
8. Industries
9. Slums
 STEP BY STEP
PROCESS OF RWH

1. 2.
INFORMATION STUDY SITE
COLLECTION PLAN

3.CALCULATE
4.DECIDE THE
WATER
NUMBER,
HARVESTING
TYPE,
POTENTIAL &
CAPACITY OF
MATCH WITH
THE
THE WATER
STRUCTURES
DEMAND
1. INFORMATION COLLECTION
A. Types, area and location of the catchment.
Different types of catchments are to be marked on the site plan.
The collection efficiency of a particular catchment will be
determined by the fact whether the catchment is paved,
unpaved or roof.
Area Of Catchments
The area from where water would be collected will be arrived at
by multiplying the length by the breadth of this space under the
roof.
Location Of Catchments
The quality of water that will be collected from the catchments
will depend on the location of the catchments. Roof catchment
provides the best quality of water. In areas where the
catchments are open to contamination or are chemically treated
then the water must be treated before being used for any
purpose.
B. Rainfall:-
There are four types of rainfall information that we’ll need
to collect:
 The annual average rainfall: Will give an overall picture of
the total amount of water that can be collected.
 The pattern of rainfall over different months: Will tell us
when the rainfall is available –is it available most of the
year or only during certain part of the year.
 Number of rainy days: Will give an indication to decide
whether to store the rainwater or to recharge it. If most of
the rainfall comes only in a short span of time ,then it is
better to recharge the aquifer.
 The peak rainfall intensity: will give an indication to design
the size of the storage or recharge structure. The sizing will
be based on how much water will need to be stored or
recharged during the intense spell of rain.
C. Geological and hydro geological data:
For systems where the harvested rainwater will be used to recharge the
aquifer, selection of site is important. Information must be collected as:
Parameter Type
Soil Poor or well sorted sand
or gravel, fine sand, silt,
loam, layered or
unweathered clay
Rocks Fractured or massive
rocks, sandstone,
limestone
Aquifer Confined or unconfined,
perched, thickness of
aquifer.
Depth of water table Shallow or deep table
zones
Description
Sand, sandy loam and
loamy sand-high
infiltration ,Silty loam or
loam-moderate
infiltration, clayey soils
or consolidated rocks-
low infiltration.
Hard massive rocks are
conducive to recharge.
The aquifer should be
unconfined and must
have good hydraulic
conductivity as well as
transmissivity.
The aquifer must not be
at shallow depths and
should be at least 8-10
meters below the ground
D. Water demand:
the size of the water harvesting structure is determined by
two factors:
1. How much is needed.
2. How much is available.

 Quantity of water currently used: This will give the total

water demand and an indication of what portion of this
total water need can be met from rainwater harvesting.
 Per capita water demand: In case one cannot find out the
exact amount of water used, one can find out the number
of persons and multiply this with the per capita norm for
water supply to arrive at the total water demand.
 Water demand during driest period:-This is to help you
estimate the most essential quantum of water needed
during the driest period so that the plans can be made for
rainwater harvesting to meet this minimum need.
E. Legislation and Incentives:
Today many state governments and city
municipalities have passed laws that make
it mandatory for existing or new buildings
to have rainwater harvesting systems. At
the same time, there are also many
incentives to motivate people to take up
rainwater harvesting. One must find out
what incentives are available in his/her
city.
2. STUDY SITE PLAN
Once all the relevant information is collected, next step is to study the site
plan:
 From the site plan find out the space available for water harvesting
structures. This will determine the size and location of the structures.
 Note the number and location of existing rain water pipes, outlets/spouts.
 Find out if there are any defunct or existing bore wells, swimming pool,
water storage tanks that can be used for storing the harvested water. In a
colony delineate all the open spaces from where water can be harvested
as well as stored.
 Determine the natural drainage, slope and location of storm water drains.
This will help to lay out the conveyance pipes along the natural drainage
patterns. This is particularly important while planning for a large complex or
colony.
 Mark the location of plumbing (water and sewage) and electrical lines in the
site. Care must be taken to avoid plumbing and electrical lines while
constructing the water harvesting structures. In case of project in public
places this becomes even more important that underground sewer, water
supply and other such cables and lines are not inadvertently destroyed.
 Other information such as the existence and location of generator room,
compost pit, waste dump etc also need to be taken into account.
 The water harvesting structure should be as close as possible to the
source and use of water.
3. CALCULATE WATER HARVESTING POTENTIAL &
MATCH WITH THE WATER DEMAND

 Total volume = area*runoff

of water(runoff) coefficient*rainfall
in meters
 There is some loss of water due to
evaporation or absorption by catchment
surfaces and other kinds of losses. The
runoff coefficient of a catchment gives
you the proportion of the rainwater that
can be harvested from the total rainfall.
4.DECIDE THE NUMBER, TYPE,
CAPACITY OF THE STRUCTURES

 Storage,recharge or both:
The decision about whether to
make storage or recharge
structures depends on a
number of factors as
explained in table below:
Parameter Type/condition Recommended structure

Nature of aquifer Impermeable, non-porous, non- Storage

homogeneous, hard rock area

Depth of groundwater table More than 8 metres Recharge and storage

Nature of terrain Hilly, rocky or undulating Storage

Uniform or flat, alluvial and Recharge and storage

sedimentary

Nature of soil Alluvial, sandy, loamy soils, gravel, Recharge and storage
silt, with boulders or small
stones(kankar)

Clayey soil Storage

Nature of geological formation Massive rocks Storage

Fractured, faulted or folded rocks, or Recharge and storage

comprises of weathered, jointed or
fissured rocks

Nature of rainfall and monsoon Number of rainy days are more, bi- Storage
modal monsoon, not intensive,
uniformly distributed

Uni-modal monsoon, rainfall Recharge and storage

available only for a few months.
 Number of structures: The number of tanks will depend on the site
conditions, which includes the position and location of the down pipes, the
layout of the building, the size of the storage tank, the slope of the roof,
the budget and the space available.
 Capacity of storage tanks: Those will depend on the type of monsoon, bi-
modal or uni-modal , nummber of rainy days , total demand and the rainfall
intensity. If the rainy days are more, a smaller tank will be sufficient as the
tank can get frequently filled. The size will also depend on the demand
and total rainfall. Where the rainfall intensity is greater the size will
increase.
 Location of structures: The location of structures will depend on the layout,
the slope, the presence of other services and pipes and proximity to point
of use.
 Filtration and treatment: The type of filtration method used will depend on
the use of the rainwater. If the harvested rainwater is going to be used for
toilet or irrigation, then minimal filtration (with sand, gravel) is required to
ensure that the water does not contain solid and toxic contaminants. On
the other hand, when the water is to be used for drinking, then the level of
treatment or filtration should be of high level.
COMPONENT OF RWH SYSTEM
A rainwater harvesting system comprises
components of various stages- transporting
rainwater through pipes or drains, filtration,
and storage in tanks for reuse or recharge.
1. Catchment
2. Conveyance or conduit system
3. First flush
4. Filters
5. Storage or recharge system
1. CATCHMENT
 The catchment of water harvesting system
is the surface which directly receives the
rainfall and provides water to the system. It
can be a paved area like a terrace or
courtyard of a building, or an unpaved area
like a lawn or open ground. A roof made of
RCC, galvanised iron or corrugated sheets
can also be used for water harvesting.
Course mesh at the roof to prevent the
passage of debris.
 2. CONVEYANCE SYSTEMS
GUTTERS
Channels all around the edge of a sloping roof to collect
and transport rainwater to the storage tank. Gutters can
be semi-circular or rectangular and could be made using:
 Locally available material such as plain galvanised iron
sheet, folded to required shapes.
 Semi circular gutters of PVC material can be readily
prepared by cutting those pipes into two semi circular
channels.
 Bamboo or betel trunks cut vertically in half.
 The size of the gutter should be according to the flow
during the highest intensity rain. It is advisable to make
them 10 to 15 percent oversize
 Gutters need to be supported so that they do not sag or
fall off when loaded with water. The way in which gutters
are fixed depends on the construction of the house, it is
possible to fix iron r timber brackets into the walls.
CONDUITS
 Conduits are pipelines or drains that
carry rainwater from catchment or
rooftop area to the harvesting system.
Conduit can be of any material like PVC
or galvanised iron, materials that are
commonly available.
The following table gives the idea about the
diameter of pipe required for draining out
rainwater.
 Diameter
Of pipe Average rate of rainfall in mm/h
(mm)
50 75 100 125 150 200
50 13.4 8.9 6.6 5.3 4.4 3.3
65 24.1 16.0 12.0 9.6 8.0 6.0
75 40.8 27.0 20.4 16.3 13.6 10.2
100 85.4 57.0 42.7 34.2 28.5 21.3
125 - - 80.5 64.3 53.5 40.0
150 - - - - 83.6 62.7

mm/ h millimetres per hour; m meters

Source: National Building Code
3.FIRST FLUSH
 A first flush device is a valve
that ensures that runoff from
the first spell of rain is flushed out and
does not enter the system.
 This needs to be done since the first
spell of rain carries a relatively larger
amount of pollutants from the air and
catchment surface.
4.FILTER
Filters are used to remove suspended pollutants
from rainwater collected over roof. A filter unit is a
chamber filled with filtering media such as fibre,
coarse sand and gravel layers to remove debris and
dirt from water before it enters the storage tank or
recharge structure. Charcoal can be added for
additional filtration.
Selection of a filter depends on followings:
1. Type of catchment
2. Amount of silt load
3. Quality of runoff
4. Purpose of storage
5. Type of recharge structure
CLOTH FILTER
The simplest form of filter is
a piece of fine cloth which is
even now used in areas like the
northeast where they collect rainwater
directly form the roof into storage tanks.
It is also known as saari filter in Gujarat
where people use a piece of saari filter
or dhoti filter
CHARCOAL WATER FILTER
 A simple charcoal filter can be made in a
drum or an earthen pot. The filter is
made of gravel, sand and charcoal, all of
which are easily available.
SAND FILTERS
Sand filters have commonly available sand
as filter media. Sand filters are easy and
inexpensive to construct. These filters
can be employed for treatment of water
to effectively remove turbidity
(suspended particles like silt and clay),
colour and microorganisms.
INVERTED SAND FILTER
 It can filter medium to coarse sized
along with bacterial contamination to
limited extent. It consists of the
following:
 Course sand 1-2 mm
 Gravel 3-6 mm
 Pebbles 15-25 mm
 Boulders 50-100mm
DEWAS FILTER
 Most residents in Dewas, Madhya
Pradesh, have wells in their houses.
Formerly, all that those wells would do was
extract ground water. But then, the district
administration of Dewas initiated a ground
water recharge scheme. The rooftop water
was collected and allowed to pass through
a filter system called the Dewas filter,
designed by Mona Rao, district collector of
Dewas and engineers of the rural
engineering services. The water thus
filtered is put into the service tube well.
VARUN FILTER
 S. Vishwanath, a Bangalore water
harvesting expert, has developed a
rainwater filter ‘VARUN’.
DESILTING CHAMBERS
 Very effective and essential for runoff
from paved areas or from storm water
drains carrying huge amount of silt, tree
leaves and other debris.
WEAVE WIRE FILTER
 It is made up of stainless steel and also of
rigid PVC. It can filter out suspended solids
coming with runoff. This type of filter is
incapable for filtering any bacteriological
contaminants if present. The degree of
filtration is 100-200 microns and capacity
ranges between 5000-45000 litres/hour.
Therefore it can be used in the systems
where rainwater is harvested for non
potable purpose only.
POP-UP FILTER
 Mr. Shiv Kumar of Bangalore developed
this design. The filtration is the nylon
sieve inserted inside rainwater pipe to
arrest coarse particles. The advantage
with this filter is that whenever the filter
gets clogged, it comes out of the casing
and easy to maintain.
5. STORAGE FACILITY
 There are various options available for the
construction of these tanks with respect to the
shape, size and material of construction.
 Shape: Cylindrical, rectangular and square.
 Material of construction: rcc, ferrocement, masonry,
plastic or metal sheets are commonly used.
 Position of tank: Depending on space availability
these tanks could be constructed above ground,
partly underground or fully underground. Some
maintenance measures like cleaning and disinfection
are required to ensure the quality of water stored in
the container.
RECHARGE STRUCTURES
 Rainwater may be charged into the
groundwater aquifers through any suitable
structures like dug wells, bore wells, recharge
trenches and recharge pits.
 Recharging of dug wells and abandoned tube wells:
In alluvial and hard rock areas, there are thousands
of wells which have either gone dry or whose water
levels have declined considerably. These can be
recharged directly with rooftop run-off.
Providing the following in the system can ensure
quality of water entering the wells:
1. Filter mesh at entrance point of rooftop drains.
2. Settlement chamber
3. Filter bed
 Settlement Tank:
Settlement tanks are used to remove silt and
other floating impurities from rainwater. A
settlement tank is like an ordinary storage
container having provisions for inflow
(bringing water from catchment), outflow
(carrying water to the recharge well) and
overflow. A settlement tank can have an
unpaved bottom surface to allow standing
water to percolate into the soil.
Any container with adequate capacity of
storage can be used as a settlement tank.
 RECHARGING OF SERVICE TUBEWELLS
In this case the rooftop runoff is not directly
led into the service tube wells, to avoid
chances of contamination of groundwater.
Instead rainwater is collected in a recharge
well, which is temporary storage tank, with a
borehole, which is shallower than the water
table. This borehole has to be provided with a
casing pipe to prevent the caving in of soil, if
the strata is loose. A filter chamber comprising
of sand, gravel and boulders is provided to
arrest the impurities.`
 RECHARGE PITS:
A recharge pit is 1.5m to 3m wide and 2m to 3m
deep. The excavated pit is lined with a
brick/stone wall with openings at regular
intervals. The top area of the pit can be
covered with a perforated cover. Design
procedure is the same as that of a settlement
tank.
 SOAKWAYS / PERCOLATION PIT:
Percolation pits, one of the easiest and most
effective means of harvesting rainwater, are
generally not more than 60*60*60 cm pits,
(designed on the basis of expected runoff as
described for settlement tanks), filled with
pebbles or brick jelly and river sand, covered
with perforated concrete slabs wherever
necessary.
 RECHARGE TRENCHES:
A recharge trench is continuous trench
excavated in the ground and refilled with
porous media like pebbles, boulders or broken
bricks. A recharge trench can be0.5m to 1.5m
wide and 1m to 1.5m deep. The length of the
recharge trench is decided as per the amount
of runoff expected. The recharge trench
should be periodically cleaned of accumulated
debris to maintain the intake capacity. For
recharging through recharge trenches, fewer
precautions have to be taken to maintain the
quality f rainfall runoff. Runoff from both paved
and unpaved catchments can be tapped.
 RECHARGE TROUGHS:
To collect the runoff from paved or unpaved
areas draining out of a compound, recharge
troughs are commonly placed at the entrance
of a residential/ institutional complex. These
structures are similar to recharge trenches
except for the fact that the excavated portion
is not filled with filter materials. In order to
facilitate speedy recharge, boreholes are
drilled at regular intervals in this trench. In
design part, there is no need of incorporating
the influence of filter materials. This structure
is capable of harvesting only a limited amount
of runoff because of the limitation with regard
to the size.
DESIGN OF RWH SYSTEM
 Effectiveness of the rainwater harvesting
depends on appropriate design of the
systems. A few design tips to put the
rain water harvesting system at the right
place.
1. Design of storage tank.
2. Design of groundwater recharge
structures.
DESIGN OF STORAGE TANKS:
The design of storage tank can be determined by the
following factors:
1. Number of persons in the household: The greater the
no. of persons the greater the storage tank is required.
2. Per capita water requirement: this varies from
household to household based on habits and also from
season to season. Consumption rate has an impact on
storage systems design as well as duration to which
stored rainwater can last.
3. Average annual rainfall.
4. Period of water scarcity: apart from water rainfall, the
pattern of rainfall – whether evenly distributed through
the year or concentrated in certain periods will
determine the storage requirement. The more
distributed the pattern, the lesser the size.
5. The type and size of catchment
DRY SEASON DEMAND VERSUS
SUPPLY APPROACH:
In this approach there are three options for
determining the volume of storage:
1. Matching the capacity of the tank to the area
of the roof.
2. Matching the capacity of the tank to the
quantity of water required by its users.
3. Choosing a tank size that is appropriate in
terms of costs, resources and construction
methods.
 In practice the costs, resources and the
construction methods tend to limit the tanks to the
smaller capacities than would otherwise be
justified by roof areas or likely needs of
consumers. For this reason elaborate calculations
aimed at matching tank capacity to roof area is
usually unnecessary. However a simplified
calculation based on the following factors can give
a rough idea of the potential for rainwater
collection.
 Illustration:
Suppose the system has to be designed for meeting drinking water
requirement of a five member family living in a building with a rooftop area
of 100 sq. m. The average annual rainfall in the region is 600 mm (average
annual rainfall in Delhi is 611 mm). Daily drinking water requirement per
person (drinking and cooking) is 10 litres.
 Design procedure:
Following details are available:
Area of the catchment (A) = 100 sq. m.
Average annual rainfall (R) = 611 mm (0.61 m)
Runoff coefficient (C) = 0.85 1. Calculate the maximum amount of rainfall
that can be harvested from the rooftop:
Annual water harvesting potential = 100 x 0.6 x 0.85=51 Cu. m. (51,000
litres)
 Determine the tank capacity: This is based on the dry period, i.e., the period
between the two consecutive rainy seasons. For example, with a monsoon
extending over four months, the dry season is of 245 days.
 Calculate drinking water requirement for the family for the dry season
= 245 x 5 x 10
= 12,250 litres
 As a safety factor, the tank should be built 20 per cent larger than required,
i.e., 14,700 litres. This tank can meet the basic drinking water requirement
of a 5member family for the dry period. A typical size of a rectangular tank
constructed in the basement will be about 4.0 m x 4.0 m x 1.0 m
DESIGN OF RECHARGE
STRUCTURE AND SETTLEMENT
TANK
 For designing the optimum capacity of the tank, the
following parameters need to be considered:
1.) Size of the catchment
2.) Intensity of rainfall
3.) Rate of recharge, which depends on the geology of the
site
 The capacity of the tank should be enough to retain the
runoff occurring from conditions of peak rainfall intensity.
The rate of recharge in comparison to runoff is a critical
factor. However, since accurate recharge rates are not
available without detailed geo hydrological studies, the
rates have to be assumed. The capacity of recharge tank
is designed to retain runoff from at least 15 minutes
rainfall of peak intensity.
 Design of a recharge trench:

The methodology of design of a recharge trench is similar to

that for a settlement tank. The difference is that the water
holding capacity of a
recharge trench is less than its gross volume because it is filled
with porous material. A factor of loose density of the media (void
ratio) has to be applied to the equation. The void ratio of the
filler material varies with the kind of material used, but for
commonly used materials like brickbats, pebbles and gravel, a
void ratio of 0.5 may be assumed.
 Using the same method as used for designing a settlement
tank:
Assuming a void ratio of 0.5, the required capacity of a recharge
tank
= (100 x 0.025 x 0.85)/0.5
= 4.25 Cu. m. (4,250 litres)
 In designing a recharge trench, the length of the trench is an
important factor. Once the required capacity is calculated,
length can be calculated by considering a fixed depth and
width.
CONSTRUCTION PROCESS
Procedure and specifications for
construction of storage and recharge
tanks are explained below. There are a
lot of similarities in the construction
steps of both storage and recharge
structures.
1. Masonry Tanks
2. Reinforced Cement Concrete Tank
3. Ferro Cement Jars
MASONARY TANKS:
 Both horizontal and vertical joints are filled with
mortar of a ration of 1:4. For obtaining maximum
strength, lay out a circle of bricks or blocks on the
foundation without mortar, with such spacing that no
brick or block is cut to fit into the circle. A proper
foundation of cement concrete will also have to be
provided.
 Covering the walls with polythene sheeting or plastic
sacks, which must be properly secured against the
walls using the sisal strings, does this. Water is
poured between the wall and the sacks or polythene
morning and evening for three weeks. The external
wall can be made weather proof (if the tank is above
the ground level) with two coats made of 1 part
cement to 10 parts lime.
REINFORCED CEMENT
CONCRETE TANK
 Reinforced concrete tanks can be built
above or below the ground. Concrete is
durable and long-lasting, but is subject to
cracking. An advantage of concrete
cisterns is their ability to decrease the
corrosiveness of rainwater by allowing the
dissolution of calcium carbonate from the
walls and floors. Each tank must have an
overflow system for situations when excess
water enters the tank. The overflow can be
connected to the drainage system.
 When constructing water tanks it is
essential to adhere to a few basic yet
critical rules with respect to correct
mixtures and applications of concrete
and mortar. These include:
1. Mixing cement, aggregate and water
properly, and not adding too much water
2. Applying the mortar or concrete within
a maximum of half an hour of mixing
3. Curing cement work properly by
keeping it moist and under shade for at
least three weeks after its application.
Ferro Cement Jars:
 Ferrocement consists of a thin sheet of
cement mortar which is reinforced with a
cage made of wire mesh.