MATERIALS OF THE EARTH

 ROCKS
 A rock is a naturally occurring aggregate of minerals, and certain
non-mineral materials such as fossils.
 Just as minerals are the building blocks of rocks, rocks in turn
are the natural building blocks of the Earth's LITHOSPHERE
(crust and mantle down to a depth of about 100 km),
ASTHENOSPHERE (although this layer, in the depth range
from about 100 to 250 km, is partially molten), mantle in the
depth range from about 250 to 2900 km), and even part of the
CORE (while the outer core is molten, the inner core is solid).

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Introduction to rocks
 Many such rocks, formed beneath the surface and now
exposed at the surface, were delivered to the surface
from great depths in the crust and in rare cases from
the underlying mantle.
 There are two general ways that rocks come to be
exposed at the surface: Formation at the surface (e.g.,
crystallization of lava, precipitation of calcite or
dolomite from sea water)
 Formation below the surface, followed by tectonic
uplift and removal of the overlying material by erosion

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 Rock classification
 Rocks can be classified by how they are formed, their composition, and texture.
• There are three major classes of rocks, igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic,
with the following attributes:
 igneous rocks form by crystallization from molten or partially material, called
magma. magma comes mainly from two places where it is formed, (1) in the
asthenosphere and (2) in the base of the crust above subducting lithosphere at a
convergent plate boundary.
 there are two subclasses of igneous rock, volcanic (sometime called extrusive), and
plutonic and hypabyssal (sometimes called intrusive).
 volcanic rocks form at the earth's surface; they cool and crystallized from magma
which has spilled out onto the surface at a volcano. at the surface, the magma is more
familiarly known as lava.
 Plutonic rocks form from magma that cools and crystallizes beneath the Earth's
surface. In a sense, this is the portion of the magma that never makes it to the
surface. For the plutonic rock to become exposed at the surface, it must be
tectonically uplifted and the overlying material must be removed by erosion.
 NB: Rocks change over time through the rock cycle.

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• Hypabyssal; formed when magma cools and solidified
inside but near to the surface, usually cn only be exposed
when erosion has takes place e.g dolerite, lopolith and
laccolith.
• Igneous rock is classified according to their
chemical/mineral composition as felsic, intermediate,
mafic, and ultramafic.
• Also by texture or grain size: intrusive rocks are course
grained (all crystals are visible to the naked eye) while
extrusive rocks may be fine-grained (microscopic crystals)
or glass (no crystalline structure.
• Volcanic rocks, especially felsic and intermediate, often
have a porphyritic texture characterized by visible
crystals floating in a fine-grained groundmass.
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 Igneous rock classification( chemical composition)
 Felsic (acidic) igneous rock
• This type consist of great amount of silica and feldpar,
have little or no iron, have low density e.g granite has
2.7g/cm3 and the color vary from white to pink.
• Granite is good stone for building.
• It is acidic in nature.
 Mafic (basic) igneous rock
• This type consist of large amount of magnesium, iron
and aluminium because of presence of metallic
minerals. E.g basalt, gabbro and dolerite.
• Have high density of 3.0g/cm3
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 Igneous rock classification(chemical composition)
 Ultra mafic(basic ) igneous rock
• This type consist very large amount of metallic minerals
like iron and magnesium, with little amount of silica
less than 45%, example Peridotite.
• It has high density of 3.3g/cm3
• Rarely to be seen on the earth surface normally contain
great bulk of materials found below the earth crust.
 Intermediate igneous rock
• This type contain with silica content between basic and
acidic degree, both of basic and acidic oxide are equal
in proportion e.g andesite and diorite.
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 Igneous rock classified basing on chemical composition

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 Igneous Rocks
Coarse-Grained: Cooled Fine-Grained: Cooled
slowly, underground quickly, at surface

Felsic:
Light-
colored
Granite Rhyolite

Mafic:
Dark-
Colored

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 Igneous Rocks
Obsidian is a dark-colored volcanic glass that forms from the very rapid
cooling of molten rock material. It cools so rapidly that crystals do not form.

Is this rock Felsic or

Mafic?

Is it fine-grained or
coarse-grained?

Is this rock Intrusive or

Extrusive?

Mafic, fine grained, extrusive

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 Characteristics of igneous rock
1.Formed by the cooling and solidification of lava.
2. Hard in nature and non stratified.
3. Consists of crystals, hence, also called as crystalline rock
4. These rocks are formed inside as well as on the earth;
Examples are Granite and Basalt.
5. Fossils are not present in this rock.
6. Igneous rocks are of two types : a. Extrusive rocks b.
Intrusive rocks - i Plutonic rocks ii Hypabyssal rock
7. It is non porous rock.
8. Undergo metamorphism, weathering and contain
minerals such as iron and magnesium.
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 Rock classification(sedimentary rocks )
• SEDIMENTARY ROCKS form from material that has accumulated on
the Earth's surface. The general term for the process of accumulation is
DEPOSITION.
• The material consists of the products of weathering and erosion, and other
materials available at the surface of the Earth, such as organic
material. The process by which this otherwise unconsolidated material
becomes solidified into rock is variously referred to LITHIFICATION
(literally turned into rock), DIAGENESIS or CEMENTATION.
• Diagenesis; physical and chemical changes, occurring in sediment after
deposition, Diagenesis includes compaction, and cementation of loose
sediment into coherent rock and Diagenesis takes place at much lower
temperatures than metamorphism.
• Like volcanic rocks, some sedimentary rocks are "lithified" right at the
surface, for instance by direct precipitation from sea water.
• Other sedimentary rocks, like plutonic igneous rocks, are "lithified" below
the surface, when they are buried under the weight of overlying sediment.
• and like the plutonic rocks, sedimentary rocks which were lithified below
the surface only become exposed at the surface by tectonic uplift and
erosion of the overlying material.
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 Sedimentary Rocks
 Sedimentary rock is formed by erosion, Sediments are
moved from one place to another, Sediments are deposited
in layers, with the older ones on the bottom.
 The layers become compacted and cemented together
 Sedimentary rocks are formed by the accumulation of
sediments.
 Sedimentary Rocks are formed at or near the Earth’s
surface, No heat and pressure involved.
 Strata – layers of rock, Stratification – the process in
which sedimentary rocks are arranged in layers.

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 Sedimentary Rock
Clastic – made of fragments of rock
cemented together with calcite or quartz
Breccia is a term most often
used for clastic sedimentary
rocks that are composed of
large angular fragments
(over two millimeters in
diameter).
Clastic sedimentary rocks such
as breccia, conglomerate,
sandstone, siltstone, and shale
are formed from mechanical
weathering debris.

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Mechanically formed; sedimentary rock formed by
compaction through the process known as diagenesis
of sediments.includes;
 Argillaceous rock; composed of very small and fine
particles such as clay and silt particles, e.g shale, clay
stone and mudstone.
 Arenaceous rock; composes of medium size particles
like sand. e.g sandstone and grit.
 Rudaceous rock; composes of large particles such as
conglomerate(round shape pebbles) breccia(angular
block), boulder –clay, gravel and scree.

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 Characteristics of sedimentary rock
Sedimentary rock are stratified and they young layer overly
the old layer as deposit materials being supplied over time.
Sedimentary rock are non crystalline; have no define
shape.
Sedimentary rock are containing fossils due to
accumulation of skeletons and plant remains.
Sedimentary rock undergo changes to metamorphic rock as
influenced by either pressure, temperature or both.

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 Sedimentary Rock
Chemical sedimentary – minerals crystallize
out of solution to become rock
Limestone is a sedimentary rock
composed primarily of calcium
carbonate (CaCO3) in the form of
the mineral calcite. It most
commonly forms in clear, warm,
shallow marine waters.
It is usually an organic
sedimentary rock that forms
from the accumulation of shell,
coral, algal and fecal debris.

Chemical sedimentary rocks, such as rock salt, iron ore, chert, flint, some
dolomites, and some limestones, form when dissolved materials precipitate from
solution.
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Chemically formed sedimentary rock; formed
when rock undergo chemical changes, whereby
the original minerals are substituted by another
type, to form sedimentary rock.
Most sedimentry rock are formed from either
precipitation and evaporated salt solution
formed from the dissolved original inerals e.g
gypsum and rock salt.

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 Sedimentary Rock
Organic sedimentary – remains of plants and
animals
Coal is an organic sedimentary rock
that forms from the accumulation and
preservation of plant materials, usually
in a swamp environment.

Coal is a combustible rock and along

with oil and natural gas it is one of the
three most important fossil fuels.

Organic sedimentary rocks such as

coal, some dolomites, and some
limestones, form from the
accumulation of plant or animal
debris.

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• Organically formed; from the remains of the once living
organism(frola and fauna); this includes;
 Calcareous rock; formed from shells and skeletons of once
living organism e.g limestone, chalk and coral reef.
 Siliceous rock; formed from the fossils of organism like
diatoms and radiolarians
 Carbonaceous rock; formed from plant remains buried
thousands of years ago, under heat and overlying pressure
resulting to plants changing into rocks e.g coals like lignite and
bituminous.
 Ferruginous rock; formed from precipitation of hydrated iron
oxide by some minute bacteria organism produced by
decomposing vegetable matter e.g ironstone and ferricrete
rock.

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 Rock calssification……………
• METAMORPHIC ROCKS form when a sedimentary or
igneous rock is exposed to high pressure, high temperature, or
both, deep below the surface of the Earth.
• The process, METAMORPHISM, produces fundamental
changes in the mineralogy and texture of the rock.
• The original rock, prior to metamorphism, is referred to as
the PROTOLITH. the Protolith can be either an igneous
rock or a sedimentary rock, as just indicated.
• The Protolith could also be a previously metamorphosed
rock.
• Ultimately however, if you go far enough back into the history
of a metamorphic rock you would find that the first Protolith
was either a sedimentary or igneous rock.
• Because all metamorphic rocks form below the surface, for
them to become exposed at the surface, they must undergo
tectonic uplift and removal of the overlying material by
erosion.
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Percentage by volume of the different classes of rocks in the Earth's crust,
(Data from Ronov & Yaroshevsky, 1969, American Geophysical Union Monograph 13)
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• The classification of rocks is based on two criteria,
TEXTURE and COMPOSITION.
• The texture has to do with the sizes and shapes of
mineral grains and other constituents in a rock, and
how these sizes and shapes relate to each
other. Such factors are controlled by the process
which formed the rock.
• Because igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic
processes are distinct, so too the resulting textures
are distinct.
• Thus there are distinct igneous textures, distinct
sedimentary texture, and distinct metamorphic
textures.
•
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• Fortunately for you, just as the three classes of rocks each have distinct
textures, so too do they have distinct mineralogies. Details of TEXTURE
and COMPOSITION are discussed in the individual sections on igneous,
sedimentary and metamorphic rocks. Just a note here with regard to grains
size.
• The terms APHANITIC and PHANERITIC mean fine-grained and
coarse-grained respectively.
• Generally, aphanitic means that the grains are too small to see or identify,
while phaneritic means that the grains are big enough to see and identify,
but the terms are used differently in each the classes of rocks.
• In igneous rocks the division between aphanitic and phaneritic is taken to
be at a grain size of 1/16 mm.
• If the grain size is larger than 1/16 mm, the texture is said to be
phaneritic.
• If the grain size is less than 1/16 mm, the texture is said to be
aphanitic. In sedimentary rocks, the formal division between aphanitic and
phaneritic is taken to be 1/256 mm.
• For metamorphic rocks the distinction between aphanitic and phaneritic is
less quantifiable, but the general meanings are the same.

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 Metamorphic rocks
• Metamorphic rocks are the rocks formed from other rocks.
• They are sedimentary or igneous rocks that have undergone changes
as a result of extreme pressure and heat.
• The name defines their formation whereby ‘meta’ means change and
‘morph’ means ‘form.’
• Hence, metamorphic rocks are those whose forms have been
changed through geological process such as large tectonic
movements and magma intrusions.
• “Metamorphic rocks arise from the transformation of existing
rock types, in a process called metamorphism, which means
“change in form”.[1] The original rock (protolith) is subjected
to heat (temperatures greater than 150 to 200 °C) and pressure
(1500 bars),[2] causing profound physical and/or chemical
change. The protolith may be a sedimentary rock, an igneous
rock or another older metamorphic
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rock.”
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 Types of Metamorphic Rocks
• There are two main types of metamorphic rocks. These are
Foliated metamorphic rocks and Non-foliated
metamorphic rocks.
 Foliated Metamorphic Rocks.
• Foliated metamorphic rocks are formed from direct
exposure to pressure and heat.
• They are the most vital and largest groupings of
metamorphic rocks. Foliated metamorphic rocks have four
distinguishable types of aligned textures and they normally
have a banded or layered appearance.
• Examples include slate, gneiss, phyllite, and schist. Non-
foliated are formed as a result of tectonic movements or
direct pressure which makes their formation highly
dependent on their pre-existing
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 Types of Metamorphic Rocks
Non-foliated Metamorphic Rocks
• Non-foliated metamorphic rocks do not have a
banded or layered appearance.
• The extensively known example of non-foliated
metamorphic rock is marble. Other examples
include quartzite, hornfels, and novaculite.

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 Metamorphic Rock
 Meaning to change shape
Changes with temperature and pressure, but remains
solid, Usually takes place deep in the Earth.
Contact Metamorphism – heated by nearby magma
Increased temperature changes the composition of
the rock, minerals are changed into new minerals
Hornfels is a fine-grained non-foliated
metamorphic rock produced by
contact metamorphism

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 Metamorphic Rocks
 Regional Metamorphism – pressure
builds up in rocks that is deep within the
Earth, Large pieces of the Earth’s crust
collide and the rock is deformed and
chemically changed by heat and pressure.
 Local metamorphism; is the one which
affects a small area and example is
thermal metamorphism.

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 Metamorphic Rock
• Foliated - contain aligned grains of flat
minerals
Gneiss is foliated
metamorphic rock
that has a banded
appearance and is
made up of granular
mineral grains.

It typically contains
abundant quartz or
feldspar minerals.
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•
Metamorphic Rock
Non-Foliated – mineral grains are not
arranged in plains or bands
Marble is a non-
foliated metamorphic
rock that is produced
from the
metamorphism of
limestone.

It is composed
primarily of calcium
carbonate.

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 Metamorphic Rock
• Determine if the following rock samples are
foliated or non-foliated:

Amphibolite Quartzite Phyllite

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Foliated 31
 metamorphism
 Metamorphism; the process which involve the change of one types
of rock to another type of rock.
 Kinds of metamorphism;
 Dynamic metamorphsim; the process which is influenced by
pressure, caused by compression forces leads to earth movement and
create mountain.
 Thermal (contact); the process mainly caused by intense heat to
the rock, where the rock changes appearance and character e.g the
zone of contact(aureole) of granite rock.
 Thermo- dynamic metamorphism; the process which takes place
as a result of both intense heat and pressure.

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 Characteristics of metamorphic rock
 Metamorphic rock are very hard and more resistance than
original rock.
 Metamorphic rock undergo weathering to form
sedimentary.
 Most of metamorphic rock are foliated( wavy grain
structure e.g schist rock.

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