Ecosystem

The term ecosystem was coined by A.G. Tansley (1953). Ecosystem is

defined as a natural unit consisting of all plants, animals and micro-
organisms (biotic factors) in an area functioning together with all of the non-
living physical (abiotic) factors of the environment.

An ecosystem is a self regulating group of biotic communities of species

interacting with one another and with their non-living environment exchanging
energy and matter.

The term Ecology was coined by Earnst Haeckel (1869). The term ecology is
derived from Greek words Oikos (home) and Logos( study). So it deals with
the study of organism in their natural home interacting with their environment.
The Ecology is also defined as study of the structure and functions of an
ecosystem.

The ecosystem can be Natural such as forests, grasslands, deserts, and

aquatic ecosystems such as ponds, rivers, lakes, and the sea and human
modified such as agricultural fields and aquarium.
Structure and Function of ecosystem

Structure 1. Biotic- Producer, Consumer (Herbivores, Carnivores and Omnivores)

Decomposer or Saprophytes.

2. Abiotic- Physical Factors (Temperature, Rainfall, Edaphic Characters

, Altitute etc) and Chemical Factors (Heavy Metals, Nutrients).

Function-
(a) Food chain, food webs and trophic structure

(b) Ecological Pyramids

(c) Energy flow

d) Cycling of nutrients (Biogeochemical cycles)

e) Primary and secondary production

f) EcologicalSuccession

g) Ecosystem development and regulation

 Structure and function of ecosystem
1) Structural features of Ecosystem: Composition and organization of
biological communities and abiotic components constitute the structure of an
ecosystem.

(A) Biotic component: The plant, animal and microorganism present in an

ecosystem forms the biotic component. They are divided based on the way
they get their food

1) Producers: They generate food by their own. They can be Photo

autotrophs( mainly green plants) which produces organic matter in
presence of sun light through photosynthesis and chemo-autotrophs (
produce organic matter through chemical reaction) such as sulphur oxidizing
or reducing bacteria, nitrifiers , methanogens.

2) Consumers: They get their food by feeding upon either plants or other
organisms. They can by divided into

a) Herbivores (plant eaters): They feed directly on producers for their food
and also known as primary consumers. Ex- rabbit, insects, man.
b) Carnivores ( meat eaters) : They feed on consumers and can be called
secondary consumers ( if feeds on herbivores . Example: frog) or tertiary
consumers( feeds upon secondary consumers, example: snake, big fish).

c) Omnivores: They feed on both plants and animals. Example: Humans, rat,
many birds.

3) Decomposers or Saprotrophs: They derive their nutrition by breaking

down the dead organic material to simpler organic compounds and
ultimately into inorganic nutreints. Examples: Bacteria, fungi and
actinomycetes are decomposer. Decomposition is a vital function in nature
as without this all the nutrient would be tied up in dead matter and no new
life will be produced.

Most ecosystem are highly complex and consist of an extremely large

number of individuals of a wide variety of species. Some species of plant
and animals are extremely rare and may occur only at a few locations.
These are said to be endemic to these area.
Biotic component of an ecosystem
B) Abiotic component: It include air, water, soil and can be divided into:

1) Climatic component: include, sunlight and shade, average temperature,

rainfall, wind pattern, humidity of a particular area. Most of the climatic
parameters occurs in the lower atmosphere known as troposphere.
2) Edaphic component: Soil is the major source of mineral nutrients for plants
and other organisms. Soil fertility is determined by nutrient availability, the
water holding capacity and aeration of the soil.

Soil profile: It is the sequence and nature of the horizons (layers)

superimposed one above the other and exposed in a pit section dug through
the soil mantle. In a longitudinal section of soil, three distinct layers (A, B
and C horizons) can be seen. Sometime we also observe O layers which is
present above the surface of mineral matrix and mainly composed of fresh or
partially decomposed organic matter.

The uppermost A : horizon is the most important one in which seeds are
grown and from which plants derive nutrition. These are rich in organic matter
and show downward loss of soluble salts, clay, iron and know as zone of
eluviations.

B- horizon : it contains less organic matter and is hence less fertile as

compared to horizon A. The chemical leached from A horizon , collects in this
zone. Also know as zone of illuviations.

C – horizon : which is a mineral layer made of incompletely weathered large

masses of rocks.
 A horizon: Organic matter, roots,
worms, insects, small rock
and mineral fragments. Dark in
color.
B horizon: Some roots and
other living organisms, materials
leached by water from the A
horizon, clay, rock fragments,
minerals. Lighter in color than
topsoil.

C horizon: Weathered parent rock

materials leached by water
from the B horizon, partly weathered
rock fragments. yellowish color.
So overall abiotic component can be divided into:

1) Physical factors: It include climatic, edaphic, geographical factor such as

latitude and altitude, Soil type, water availability, water current etc. The
variation in these physical parameter decide the type of ecosystem
characteristics. The solar flux, temperature and precipitation pattern shows
mark difference in a desert ecosystem, tropical or tundra ecosystem.

2) Chemical factors: Availability of major essential nutrient such as carbon,

nitrogen, phosphorous, level of toxic substances, salts affects the
functioning of an ecosystem.

Function attributes of an ecosystem: The major functional attributes of an

ecosystems are as follows:

a) Food chain, food webs and trophic structure b) Energy flow

c) Cycling of nutrients (Biogeochemical cycles)

d) Primary and secondary production

e) Ecosystem development and regulation

(a) Food chains: The sequence of eating and being eaten in an ecosystem is
known as food chain. All organism, living or dead are potential source of food
for some other organism and thus there is essentially no waste in the
functioning of a natural ecosystem.

Example of food chain:

Grass grasshopper Frog Snake Hawk ( Grassland

ecosystem)

Phytoplankton water fleas small fish Tuna ( Pond ecosystem)

Lichens reindeer Man ( Arctic tundra)

Each organism in the ecosystem is assigned a feeding level or trophic

level depending upon its nutritional status. So in grassland ecosystem grass
constitute the 1st trophic level, grasshopper 2nd, frog 3rd and snake and hawk
occupy the 4rd and the 5th trophic levels, respectively.

The decomposer consume the dead matter of all these trophic level.
In nature we come across two type of food chain in ecosystem:

1) Grazing food chain: It starts with green plants( primary producer) and
culminates in carnivores. Examples:

Grass Rabbit Fox

Phytoplankton water fleas small fish Tuna ( Pond ecosystem)

2) Detritus food chain: It start with dead organic matter which the detritivores
and decomposer consumes. Partially decomposed dead organic matter and
even the decomposers are consumed by detritivores and their predators.
Example:

(Mangrove ecosystem)

Leaf litter algae crabs small carnivorous fish large carnivorous fish

Dead organic matter fungi Bacteria ( Forest ecosystem)

Food web: Food chain in ecosystem are rarely found to operate in isolated linear
sequence. Rather they are found to be interconnected and usually form a complex
network with several linkages and are known as food web. Food web is a network of
food chain where different types of organisms are connected at different trophic levels,
so that there are number of option of eating and being eaten at each trophic level.

Food webs give greater stability to the ecosystem, as if one species become extinct or
suffers then the species in the subsequent trophic level are also affected in food chain,
however in case of food web effect will be reduced due to presence of other food
options.
Significance of food chains and food webs:

1) Plays significant role in ecosystem as flow of energy and nutrient cycling take
place through food chain and food webs.

2) Food chain and food webs also help in the maintaining and regulating the
population size of different animals thus maintain the ecological balance.

3) Food chain shows a unique property of biological magnification of some

chemicals. Pesticides for examples DDT or other chemical which are non-
biodegradable in nature. Such chemicals are not decomposed or excrete out so
their concentration keep on increasing at each successive trophic level. This
phenomenon is know as biomagnification or biological magnification.

Trophic structure: The producer and consumer are arranged in the ecosystem in a
definite manner and their interaction along with population size are expressed together
as trophic structure. Each food level is known as trophic level and the amount of living
matter at each trophic level at a given time is known as standing crop or standing
biomass.
(b) Ecological Pyramids: Ecological pyramids were first devised by British
ecologist Charles Elton(1927). Ecological pyramids is graphical
representation of trophic structure and function of an ecosystem,
starting with producers at the base and successive trophic level forming
the apex is known as an ecological pyramid. It is of three types:

1) Pyramid of numbers: It represent the number of individual organisms at

each trophic level. It may be upright or inverted pyramid of number depending
upon the type of ecosystem and food chain. Example:

Top carnivores Top carnivores

Lion, Tigers
Hawks, other
birds Carnivores Snakes, Foxes
Frogs, birds
Carnivores
Herbivores Insects, birds
Herbivores Insects
Producers Tree
Producers Grasses
Forest ecosystem ( narrow on
Grassland ecosystem ( upright) both end and broader in the
middle
 Hyper parasite Fleas, microbes
Parasite Lice, bugs
Herbivores Birds
Producer Trees

Parasitic food chain( Inverted)

2) Pyramid of Biomass: It is based upon the total biomass (dry weight) at

each trophic level in a food chain. It can be upright or inverted. Example:

Tertiary Carnivores Big fish

Carnivores
Carnivores Small fish
Snake, frog, birds
Herbivores insect

Herbivores Squirrel, rabbit, insect producer phytoplankton

Producer Tree, herbs, grasses
Pond ecosystem
Forest ecosystem
3) Pyramid of energy: The amount of energy present at each trophic level is
considered for this type of pyramid. It is always upright, because there is
huge loss of energy (about 90%) in the form of heat and respiration at each
successive trophic level. Thus at each energy level only 10% of the energy
passes on.

0.1 Top carnivores

Carnivores(1)

Herbivores(10)

Producer(100)

Pyramid of energy