Chapter

In the quest to understand nature,

scientists use physical quantities to
describe the world around us.

Physical Quantities and Units

– Length & Time
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 measurement of length and time
accurate measurement
No measurement is ever perfectly accurate. Even with high
precision instruments, some error is inevitable.
There
There are
are two main
main types
types of
of errors:
errors:
Random Errors Systematic Errors
State • random • constant
• observers
• in all measurements
• observers estimate consistently
underestimate or
Occurrence the last figure of a
overestimate a
reading on an
reading
instrument

• reduced by • minimised by
Remedy averaging a large method of
number of readings differences

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 measurement of length
length
Length is the measurement of something from
one end to the other end.
 has a SI unit of metre (m)
 other units include centimetres (cm),
millimetres (mm) and kilometres (km)

One metre is the distance travelled by light in a

vacuum in 1/299792458 of a second.
Q: What is the speed of light?

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 measurement of length
length
Lengths
Lengths can
can be
be measured
measured by
by using
using the
the following:
following:
 metre/half-metre
metre/half-metre rule
rule

accuracy = 1 mm / 0.1 cm / 0.001 m

 measuring
measuring tape
tape

accuracy = 1 mm / 0.1 cm / 0.001 m

 measurement of length
parallax error
The
The eye
eye must
must be
be positioned
positioned perpendicularly
perpendicularly at
at the
the mark
mark on
on
the
the scale
scale to
to avoid
avoid parallax
parallax error.
error.
8.3 cm
correct
8.2 cm
wrong
8.5 cm
wrong

Parallax
Parallax error
error is due to
 incorrect
incorrect positioning
positioning of
of the
the eye
eye
 the
the object
object is
is not
not at
at the
the same
same level
level as
as the
the markings
markings of
of the
the
scale
scale
 measurement of length
zero error
Many instruments do not read zero exactly when
there is nothing being measured.

Reasons include:
 instruments are out of adjustment
 some minor fault is present in the instrument

Instruments are usually still accurate as long as

the zero error is added or subtracted from the
reading shown on the scale.

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 measurement of length
engineer’s calipers
A
A pair
pair of
of engineer’s
engineer’s calipers
calipers and
and ruler
ruler are
are used
used for
for measuring
measuring
the
the lengths
lengths of objects without
without any
any flat
flat sides.
sides.

the jaws are closed until remove the calipers and

the points just touch the measure the distance between
object to be measured the jaws with a ruler.

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 measurement of length
vernier calipers
Vernier
Vernier calipers
calipers measure small lengths accurately up to
0.01
0.01 cm.
cm.

inside jaws tail

vernier scale main scale

outside jaws
accuracy = 0.1 mm / 0.01 cm

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 measurement of length
vernier calipers
AB C

main scale
(fixed)

vernier scale
(movable)
object being
9 mm
measured

reading on main scale (between A and B) = 2.4 cm

reading on vernier scale (C) = 0.08 cm
actual reading of object = 2.4 + 0.08
= 2.48 cm
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 measurement of length
vernier calipers
When
When the
the two
two jaws
jaws of the
the vernier
vernier calipers
calipers touch
touch each other,
other,
both
both zero
zero marks
marks on
on the
the main
main scale
scale and
and on
on the
the vernier
vernier scale
should
should coincide.
coincide.

If
If not,
not, there
there is
is aa zero error in
in the
the vernier
vernier calipers.
calipers.

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 measurement of length
vernier calipers
If
If the
the two
two jaws
jaws touch
touch each other,
other, but
but the
the zero marks of the
main
main scale
scale and vernier scale do not coincide
coincide as
as shown
shown
below,
below, the
the zero error is positive.
0 1
main scale
(fixed)

vernier scale
(movable) 5
0 10

zero error = +0.01 cm

supposing observed reading is 3.24 cm, then

corrected reading = observed reading – zero error
= 3.24 – (+0.01)
= 3.23 cm
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 measurement of length
vernier calipers
If the two jaws touch each other, but the zero marks of the
main scale and vernier scale do not coincide as shown
below, the zero error is negative.
0 1
main scale
(fixed)

vernier scale
(movable) 5
0 10

zero error = -0.02 cm

supposing observed reading is 4.03 cm, then

corrected reading = observed reading – zero error
= 4.03 – (-0.02)
= 4.05 cm
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 measurement of length
micrometer screw gauge
Micrometers
Micrometers measure
measure small
small diameters
diameters or
or thicknesses.
thicknesses.

anvil spindle sleeve thimble ratchet

frame

accuracy = 0.01 mm / 0.001 cm

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 measurement of length
micrometer screw gauge

sleeve thimble

reading on sleeve = 4.5 mm

reading on thimble = 0.12 mm
actual reading of object = 4.5 + 0.12
= 4.62 mm

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 measurement of length
micrometer screw gauge
When the anvil and spindle of the micrometer
touch each other, the scales should read zero.

If not, there is a zero error in the micrometer.

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 measurement of length
micrometer screw gauge
If
If the
the anvil
anvil and
and spindle
spindle touch
touch each
each other,
other, but
but the
the scales
scales do
do
not
not read zero as shown below, the zero error is positive.
positive.

} 2 divisions

supposing
supposing observed
observed reading
reading is
is 2.37
2.37 mm,
mm, then
then
corrected
corrected reading
reading =
= observed
observed reading
reading –
– zero
zero error
error
=
= 2.37
2.37 –
– (+0.02)
(+0.02)
=
= 2.35
2.35 mm
mm
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 measurement of length
micrometer screw gauge
If
If the
the anvil
anvil and
and spindle
spindle touch
touch each
each other,
other, but
but the
the scales
scales do
do
not
not read zero as shown below, the zero error is negative.
negative.

} 3 divisions

supposing
supposing observed
observed reading
reading is
is 2.87
2.87 mm,
mm, then
then
corrected
corrected reading
reading == observed reading
reading –
– zero
zero error
error
=
= 2.87
2.87 –
– (-0.03)
(-0.03)
=
= 2.90
2.90 mm
mm
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 measurement of time
time
 has a SI unit of second (s)
 other units include years, months, days, hours,
minutes and seconds

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 measurement of time
time
Time
Time can
can be
be measured
measured by using the following:

 clocks  analogue
stopwatch

 digital
digital
stopwatch
stopwatch

All timing devices make use of some regular process.

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 measurement of time
the period of a simple pendulum
Time can also be measured
measured
by using the following pendulum bob
simple
simple pendulum. tied to one end
of a thread
 oscillations are
are regularly
regularly
repeating motions
 the period is
is time
time in
in
which 1 oscillation occurs

A O B

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 measurement of time
pendulum clock
 clocks make use of a process
which is a regularly repeating
motion (oscillations), such as
the swing of a pendulum
pendulum
 such oscillations
oscillations are
are very
very
regular so period is regular
 most modern clocks depend on
the vibration of quartz crystals
to keep
keep time
time accurately
accurately
 in clocks that are wound up,
elastic potential energy is stored
in coiled springs
springs

pendulum clock
(cuckoo clock)

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 measurement of time
watch
 used for measuring long intervals
of time
 most modern watches depend on
the vibration of quartz
quartz crystals
crystals to
to
keep time accurately
 the energy that keeps these
crystals vibrating comes from a
small battery
 many watches
watches still
still make
make use
use of
of
coiled springs to supply the needed
needed
energy

wrist watch

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 measurement of time
stopwatch
A
A stopwatch
stopwatch is
is used
used to
to measure
measure short
short intervals
intervals of
of time.
time.

 stopwatches (analogue and digital)

accuracy = 0.1 s accuracy = 0.01 s

When
When using
using a digital
digital stopwatch
stopwatch to
time
time a race, the time toto the
the nearest
0.1
0.1 s should
should be
be given.
given.
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 measurement of time
ticker-tape timer
An electrical device that makes use of the oscillations
oscillations of
of aa
steel strip
strip to
to mark
mark short intervals of time.

6 ~ 12 V a.c. steel strip carbon paper disc

coil magnet ticker-tape drawing pin

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 measurement of time
ticker-tape timer
 steel strip vibrates 50 times a second; therefore 50 dots
are made in in aa second on
on the
the paper
paper tape
tape

10-dot
10-dot tape
tape

between 2 consecutive dots, time interval = 1 s / 50 dots

= (1/50) s or 0.02 s

as there are 10 spaces on a piece of tape,

time taken for the tape to pass through the timer
= 10 x 0.02 s
= 0.20 s
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 Physical quantities
are made up of may be
include

Numerical values Base quantities Vector

and suitable units Base SI units Scalar

such as for use

length (m) Measurement Prefixes
mass (kg)
time(s) e.g.
electric current (A)
temperature (K) e.g. of micro () 10-6
amount of substance (mol) milli (m) 10-3
luminous intensity (cd) centi (c) 10-2
deci (d) 10-1
kilo (k) 103
Length Time mega (M) 106

can be measured with can be measured with

metre rule pendulum clock

half-metre rule watch
measuring tape stopwatch
vernier calipers ticker-tape timer
micrometer screw gauge
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