Vitamin A & Carotenoids

Overview Vitamin A

Vitamin Biochemical or Food Sources RDA or Al

Physiological Function

Vitamin A Synthesis of rhodopsin; Liver, dairy products, 900μg RAE ♂

Retinol, retinal, and cell growth, cell and fortified foods 700μg RAE ♀
retinoic acid differentiation; bone Sweet potato, carrots,
Provitamin development; and spinach, butternut
Carotenoids immune function squash, greens,
Antioxidant broccoli, and cantaloupe
 Vitamin A and Carotenoids

• Vitamin A
– Group of compounds that possess the biological activity
of all-trans retinol
 Retinol, retinal, retinoic acid, retinyl ester, and synthetic analogues
• Carotenoids
– Red, orange, and yellow lipid-soluble pigments found
mainly in plants
– Provitamin A
 -carotene, -carotene, and -cryptoxanthin
 Vitamin A and Carotenoids: Sources

• Sources
– Vitamin A (preformed)
 Liver, dairy products, eggs, and fatty fish and their oils
 Some foods are fortified
– Carotenoids
 Found in brightly colored fruits and vegetables
 Dietary Sources

Food Serving Size Vitamin A

 Digestion and Absorption of
Vitamin A and Carotenoids (1 of 4)

• Both retinoids and carotenoids require

digestion
• Incorporated into micelle
• Absorption in small intestine
• Rate of absorption depends on form and
conditions
 Digestion and Absorption of
Vitamin A and Carotenoids (2 of 4)
• Vitamin A requires digestion before absorption
– Heating plant foods weakens some complexes but
enzymatic digestion still required
• 70–90% vitamin A absorbed
– Provided meal contains 10 g fat or more
• Carotenoid absorption
– Ranges from less than 5% for uncooked vegetables to
60% as pure oil
 Digestion and Absorption of
Vitamin A and Carotenoids (3 of 4)
see next slide for number definition
 Digestion and Absorption of
Vitamin A and Carotenoids (4 of 4)
1. β-carotene is converted into two retinal molecules. See Figure 10.3 for
details of this reaction.
2. Cellular retinol-binding protein (CRBP) II binds to both retinol and
retinal in the intestinal cell. Retinal, while attached to CRBPII, is
reduced to retinol by retinal/retinaldehyde reductase to form CRBPII-
retinol.
3. Lecithin retinol acyl transferase (LRAT) esterifies a fatty acid (palmitic
acid) onto the CRBPII-bound retinol to form CRBPII-retinylpalmitate.
4. Retinyl esters are incorporated along with phospholipids, triacylglycerol,
cholesterol esters, carotenoids, and apoproteins to form a chylomicron.
5. Chylomicrons leave the intestinal cell and enter the lymph system and
ultimately the blood.
6. Retinoic acid can directly enter the blood, where it attaches to albumin
for transport to the liver.
 Vitamin A and Carotenoids
Metabolism and Excretion (Overview)
• Metabolism
– Catabolism occurs mainly (but not only) in kidneys
• Excretion
– Excretion
 urine (60%) and
 feces (40%)
• Carotenoid metabolites are also excreted in bile.
 Vitamin A and Carotenoids Transport,
Metabolism, and Storage
• Additional metabolism in liver
– Retinol that is esterified may be stored in the liver
 Stellate cells and parenchymal cells
• Transported in blood via two proteins
– Retinol-binding protein (RBP)
– Transthyretin
• Carotenoids transported as part of lipoproteins
– Stored in liver and adipose tissue
Vitamin A and Carotenoids Transport,
Metabolism, and Processing
Functions Overview
 Vitamin A Functions

• Vision
– Rhodopsin
• Gene expression
• Signaling
• Cellular differentiation, proliferation, and
growth
– Keratinocytes
• Retinoids and cancer
• Other functions
Vitamin A Functions and
Mechanisms of Action
Vitamin A Functions Vision
 Carotenoids Functions and Mechanisms of
Action
• Carotenoids function as antioxidants
– Can react with and quench free radicals
– Especially valuable in protection of cell membranes
– Quenching
 Process by which electronically excited molecules or atoms, such
as singlet molecular oxygen, are inactivated
 Carotenoids Functions and
Mechanisms of Action
• Carotenoids and eye health
– Zeaxanthin and lutein
• Carotenoids and heart disease
– β-carotene, lycopene, lutein, and α-carotene can prevent
the oxidation of LDL
 Prevent or slow development of atherosclerosis
• Carotenoids and cancer
– Influence cell growth and differentiation
 Carotenoids Functions and
Mechanisms of Action
• Carotenoids and health claims
– Claims targeted at fruits, vegetables, and grains
– Diets rich in fruits and vegetables and rich in carotenoids
are encouraged
 Linked to reduced cancer risk
 Vitamin A and Carotenoids
Interactions with Other Nutrients
• Excess vitamin A interferes with vitamin K absorption
• High -carotene intake may decrease plasma vitamin E
concentrations
• Protein and zinc influence vitamin A status and transport
 Zinc is required for synthesis of RBP (Retinol Binding Protein)
and Transthyretin (transports thyroxine and retinol)
 Zinc is needed for conversion of the following:
 retinol to retinal
 retinyl esters to retinol
• Iron metabolism interrelated with both carotenoids and
vitamin A
Vitamin A supplementation has beneficial effects on iron
deficiency anemia
 Vitamin A and Carotenoids
Metabolism and Excretion
• Excreted in urine and feces
– Amounts vary depending on intake
• Small amounts expired from lungs
• Carotenoids metabolized to variety of compounds
and excreted into bile
 Vitamin A and Carotenoids
Recommended Dietary Allowance
• Men: 900 µg RAE
• Women: 700 µg RAE

Retinol Activity Equivalents (RAE)

1 µg RAE =
 1 µg retinol
 12 µg naturally occurring B carotene
 24 µg other naturally occurring carotenoids
Older units
– International units (IU)
– Retinol equivalents (RE)
 Vitamin A and Carotenoids Deficiency

• Inadequate intake occurs frequently in children in

developing countries
– Dry, scaly skin
– Night blindness, Bitot’s spots
– Xerophthalmia, keratinization
– Measles depresses vitamin A status
 Vitamin A supplements recommended by WHO for treatment of
measles in populations where deficiencies are likely
Vitamin A and Carotenoids Deficiency

keratinization
Global Status of Vitamin A Deficiency

69% of
preschool
children
49% of
preschool
children
Xerophthalmia
 Strategies to Reduce Vitamin A Deficiency

• Fortification
– Golden rice
– Orange fleshed sweet
potatoes
• Supplementation
 Toxicity
Vitamin A and Carotenoids

• Vitamin A toxicity
– Tolerable Upper Intake Level: 3,000 µg RAE
 Hypervitaminosis A
 Teratogenic
• -carotene causes hypercarotenosis but does not
damage liver, etc.
– Orange discoloration of skin
• Supplements not advised
– Consume in the diet
 Hypercarotenosis (NOT TOXIC)

Carotenoids in foods are not toxic

 Excess carotenoids can cause carotenodermia