Developing Wave Equations

• Need wave equation and wave function for

particles. Schrodinger, Klein-Gordon, Dirac
• not derived. Instead forms were guessed at, then
solved, and found where applicable
• So Dirac equation applicable for spin 1/2
relativistic particles
• Start from 1924 DeBroglie hypothesis: “particles”
(those with mass as photon also a particle…) have
wavelength l = h/p

P460 - dev. wave eqn. 1

 Wave Functions
• Particle wave functions are similar to amplitudes
for EM waves…gives interference (which was used
to discover wave properties of electrons)
• probability to observe =|wave amplitude|2=|y(x,t)|2
• particles are now described by wave packets
• if y = A+B then |y|2 = |A|2 + |B|2 + AB* + A*B
giving interference. Also leads to
indistinguishibility of identical particles

t1 t2 merge
vel=<x(t2)>-<x(t1)>
(t2-t1)
Can’t tell apart
P460 - dev. wave eqn. 2
 Wave Functions

• Describe particles with wave functions

 y(x) = S ansin(knx) Fourier series (for example)
• Fourier transforms go from x-space to k-space
where k=wave number= 2p/l. Or p=hbar*k and
Fourier transforms go from x-space to p-space
• position space and l/k/momentum space are
conjugate
• the spatial function implies “something” about the
function in momentum space

y ( x)  1 / 2p   (k )e dk ikx

 (k )  1 / 2p y ( x)e  ikx
dx

P460 - dev. wave eqn. 3

 Wave Functions (time)

• If a wave is moving in the x-direction (or -x) with

wave number k can have
y k ( x, t )  C cos( kx  wt )  D sin( kx  wt )
i ( kx wt ) i ( kx wt )
or Ae  Be

• kx-wt = constant gives motion of wave packet

• the sin/cos often used for a bound state while the
exponential for a right or left traveling wave

k  2p / l w  2p / T  2p f  2p
p  h / l  k E  h  w

P460 - dev. wave eqn. 4

 Wave Functions (time)

• Can redo Transform from wave number space

(momentum space) to position space

y ( x, t )  1 / 2p   (k )e i ( kx wt )
dk
or y ( x, t )   A(k )e i ( kx wt )
dk
• normalization factors 2p float around in Fourier
transforms
• the A(k) are the amplitudes and their squares give
the relative probability to have wavenumber k
(think of Fourier series)
• could be A(k,t) though mostly not in our book
• as different k have different velocities, such a wave
packet will disperse in time. See sect. 2-2. Not
really 460 concern…..

P460 - dev. wave eqn. 5

 Heisenberg Uncertainty Relationships
• Momentum and position are conjugate. The
uncertainty on one (a “measurement”) is related to
the uncertainty on the other. Can’t determine both
at once with 0 errors

DxDpx   / 2
• p = hbar k
• electrons confined to nucleus. What is maximum
kinetic energy? Dx = 10 fm
• Dpx = hbarc/(2c Dx) = 197 MeV*fm/(2c*10 fm) =
10 MeV/c
Dp   ( p  p )2    p 2    p  2
• while <px> = 0

• Ee=sqrt(p*p+m*m) =sqrt(10*10+.5*.5) = 10 MeV

electron can’t be confined (levels~1 MeV)
proton Kp = .05 MeV….can be confined

P460 - dev. wave eqn. 6

 Heisenberg Uncertainty Relationships
• Time and frequency are also conjugate. As E=hf
leads to another “uncertainty” relation

D ED t   / 2
• atom in an excited state with lifetime t = 10-8 s
• |y(t)|2 = e-t/t as probability decreases
• y(t) = e-t/2teiMt (see later that M = Mass/energy)
Dt ~ t DE = hD D  1/(4p108)  8*106 s-1


 D is called the “width” or
and can be used to determine ths mass of quickly
decaying particles
• if stable system no interactions/transitions/decays

D t   and DE  0 (but not Dp  0)

P460 - dev. wave eqn. 7

 Schrodinger Wave Equation
• Schrodinger equation is the first (and easiest)
• works for non-relativistic spin-less particles (spin
added ad-hoc)
• guess at form: conserve energy, well-behaved,
predictive, consistent with l=h/p
• free particle waves
y ( x)  Ceikx
dy p
 ik y  i y
dx 
d
 i is operator for momentum
dx
d 2y  p 2

2
  k 2
y  2 y
dx 
p2 2 d 2
K  2
is operator for K
2m 2m dx
P460 - dev. wave eqn. 8
 Schrodinger Wave Equation
• kinetic + potential = “total” energy K + U = E
• with operator form for momentum and K gives
(Hamiltonian)
 dy
2 2
 2
 Uy  Ey 1DSch.eqn.
2m dx
by inspection if y ( x, t )  e i ( kx wt )
y 
  iwy or i is E operator
t t
Giving 1D time-dependent SE
 y2 2
y
  V ( x, t )y ( x, t )  i
2m x 2
t
 2

For 3D:  2

x 2

P460 - dev. wave eqn. 9

 Operators (in Ch 3)
• Operators transform one function to
another. Some operators have eigenvalues
and eigenfunctions
 
and are operators Of  lf
x t
solve for eigenfunction f  e i ( kx wt )

eigenvalue : f  ikf and so
x
eigenvalue : i / x  k  p
eigenvalue : i / t  w  E
Only some functions are eigenfunctions.
Only some values are eigenvalues

In x-space or t-space let p or E be represented by the

operator whose eigenvalues are p or E
P460 - dev. wave eqn. 10
 Operators
• Hermitian operators have real eigenvalues
and can be diagonalized by a unitary
transformation
• easy to see/prove for matrices
if O  OT *  O dagger  Hermitian

Continuous function look at “matrix” elements

f1 | f 2  dot product   f1* f 2 dVol

f1 | O | f 2  matrix element   f1*Of 2 dVol

if f1 | O f 2  OT * f1 | f 2 (all 1,2)  Hermitian

P460 - dev. wave eqn. 11

 Operators
• Example 1 O = d/dx

d 
* d f2 By parts
f1 | f 2   f1 dx
dx  dx
 d f1* df1
 f1* f 2 |  f 2 dx  0  | f2
  dx dx
d
O  OT *  not Hermitian
dx
d
O  i  Hermitian
dx

Usually need function to be well-behaved at

boundary (in this case infinity).

P460 - dev. wave eqn. 12

 Commuting Operators
• Some operators commute, some don’t
(Abelian and non-Abelian)

d
Ox P
dx
d d d
OP  x PO  x  1 x
dx dx dx
 O, P   OP  PO  1
• if commute [O,P]=0 then can both be
diagonalize (have same eigenfunction)
• conjugate quantities (e.g. position and
momentum) can’t be both diagonalized
(same as Heisenberg uncertainty)

 p , x   i
[ p, H ]  0 (sometimes)

P460 - dev. wave eqn. 13

 Interpret wave function as probability
amplitude for being in interval dx


 y dx  1 if normalized for 1 object

2
| |



 fydx  f  f  ave. value of f

y *



 x   x | y | dx
2
(commutes)
iy
 p x  y *
dx (doesn ' t commute)
x
* iy
 E  y dx
t

P460 - dev. wave eqn. 14

 Example
px aiEt / a
( x, t )  A cos e in x
a 2 2
 0 elsewhere. y ( x )  y (  x )  even

No forces. V=0 solve Schr. Eq

 y2
y
2
 i
2mx 2
t
p2 2

2
y  Ey
2ma
Find average values
 x  y * xydx  0(even  odd  even)
y
 px  y *
dx  C  cos X sin Xdx  0
ix
P460 - dev. wave eqn. 15
 x    x y dx  A  x cos
2 2 2 2 2 2 px
2 dx
a p 2 2
 2 (  1)  0.033a 2

2p 6
Dx  xrms   x 2    x  2  .18a
 2
y
 p  y ( i)
2 * 2
dx
x 2

 2p 2 *  2p 2
 2 y ydx  2
a a
Dp  p  p /a
2
DxDp  0.57

P460 - dev. wave eqn. 16

Momentum vs. Position space
• Can solve SE (find eigenvalues and
functions, make linear series) in
either position or momentum space
• Fourier transforms allow you to go
back and forth - pick whichever is
easiest

y ( x, t )  1 / 2p   (k , t )e dk ikx

 (k , t )  1 / 2p y ( x, t )e ikx
dx

P460 - dev. wave eqn. 17

 Momentum vs. Position space
example
• Expectation value of momentum in
momentum space
p   | p |     * (k , t )k (k , t )dk
   * (k , t )k[1 / 2p y ( x, t )e ikx dx]dk
 ikx
   [1 / 2p y i
*
e dx]dk
x

• integrate by parts and flip integrals

 ikx y ikx
 y i x
e dx  iy e ikx |   i
x
e dx

y
p     [1 / 2p 
*
ie ikx dx]dk
x
y
   i [1 / 2p   *e ikx dk ]dx
x
y 
 y * (i )dx  p  i
x x
P460 - dev. wave eqn. 18
 Probability Current
• Define probability density and
probability current. Good for V real
• gives conservation of “probability”
(think of a number of particles,
charge). Probability can move to a
different x
• V imaginary gives P decreasing with
time (absorption model)

P  y *y  Pdx  cons tan t

 * y y *
j ( x, t )  (y  y)
2im x x
 
P( x, t )  j ( x, t )  0  conservation
t x

P460 - dev. wave eqn. 19

 Probability and Current Definitions


 | y ( x, t ) | dx   (y * y y *
d
dt 
2
t  t y )dx
With V real Use S.E.
to substitute for y / t , y / t *

*  2y  2y *

t y  2im (y
2
x 2
 x 2
y)
  i

x 2 m (y * y
x  y *
x 
y )   x J ( x, t )
substitute into integral and evaluate


y
* y y *
d
dt
2
dx  i
2m (y x  x y)| 


The wave function must go to 0 at infinity and
so this is equal 0
P460 - dev. wave eqn. 20
 Probability Current Example
• Supposition of 2 plane waves (right-
going and left-going)

y
y  Ae  Be
ikx ikx
 ik ( Aeikx  Be ikx )
x
 * y y *
j ( x, t )  (y  y)
2im x x
ik
j [( A*e ikx  B *e ikx )( Aeikx  Be ikx )
2im
 ( A*e ikx  B *e ikx )( Aeikx  Be ikx )]
k
j (| A |2  | B |2 )
m

P460 - dev. wave eqn. 21