D3.

COSMOLOGY
COSMOLOGY The Universe – what is its age and origin
 Newton’s model of the universe assumed that the universe was:
▪ infinite (in space and time)
▪ uniform
▪ static

In 1823, the German astronomer, Heinrich Olbers, suggested that

Newton’s view of an infinite universe conflicted with observation
When we look up into the night sky we see darkness but, in an
infinite universe, we should be able to see a star in every direction
and, therefore, the night sky should be uniformly bright on a
cloudless night. SHOULD BE. But it is not.
The darkness of the night sky is one of the pieces of evidence for a
dynamic universe such as the Big Bang model which has developed
into the most probable explanation of the beginning of the universe.
 Olbers’ Paradox
▪Elegant
let n be average
and verydensity
simpleof stars,
math that brings down the whole theory
▪ let t be thickness of the shell at distance d from Earth;
▪ volume of the shell: 4𝝅d2 t
▪ number of stars 𝑁 in a shell = density x volume = n 4𝝅d2 t
𝐿
▪ but brightness of one star is 𝑏 =
4𝜋𝑑 2
▪ assuming that luminosity 𝐿 is on the average the same for all stars,
the total brightness we receive from any shell is 𝑏𝑁 and it is constant:
L  4d 2 nt  Lnt  const.
4d 2

amount of light we receive from shell does

not depend upon how far away the shell is

▪ Overall brightness: add up all shells

▪ Since assumed Universe is infinite, there are an infinite # of shells
▪ There should be an infinite bright night sky

However, this is clearly not the case as our night time sky is (as you
may have noticed) in fact dark. This paradox provides evidence that
the universe is either expanding or has a finite history.
 Silly Ideas to reconcile theory and observation:
One possible solution is that the light could be absorbed before it reaches us.
However, if something was in the way and absorbed the light, then it will heat
up and eventually reradiate the energy. The amount of light does not
decrease, instead, the dust merely diffuses the starlight, lessening its
intensity and spreading it over a larger area. We would continue to see the
light emitted from all of the stars, so the presence of cosmic dust cannot
account for the darkness of the night sky.

The other might be that the universe may not be infinite and there is a ‘cosmic
edge’, then the stars do not carry on forever but there is a limit to the universe. If
we are receiving light from a finite number of stars, then the night sky will be dark.

So, Universe would have edge???

Instead, Olber's Paradox can be reconciled through

1. expansion of the Universe and
2. the finite age and
- both of which are consequences of the Big Bang.
1. Universe is expanding
1a. Doppler’s redshift
Hubble: that stars further away from us have a higher recession velocity.
Consequently, these stars are more red shifted than those closer to us,
so we could perhaps not even see the electromagnetic waves the most
distant stars emit, since they don’t appear in the visible spectrum (dark
regions of the night sky).
1b. Cosmological redshift
Which is not a Doppler effect.
Space itself is being stretched by expansion, so electromagnetic
waves are also stretched and therefore redshifted.
So, expansion of space can cause the
energy of emitted light to be reduced via
redshift. More specifically, the extreme
levels of radiation from the Big Bang have
been redshifted to microwave
wavelengths (1100 times longer than its
original wavelength) as a result of the
cosmic expansion, and thus form the
cosmic microwave background radiation.
2. Universe has a finite age

If the universe is approximately 14 billion years old, we can see light

that is less than 14 billion ly away.
And, so…
if we receive light from a finite # of stars, the night sky would be dark

Note: Poet Edgar Allan Poe suggested that the finite size of
the observable universe resolves the apparent paradox.
 Edwin Hubble at Mt. Wilson
Hubble’s observations at the 100 inch during the
1920’s led him to the conclusion that the universe
is expanding, and that an object’s recession velocity
is proportional to its distance from the observer.

Hubble guiding the Hooker

100 inch telescope in 1923.
The Hooker 100 inch telescope atop Mt.
Photos courtesy Mt. Wilson:
http://www.mtwilson.edu/History
Wilson near Pasadena, CA. It was the largest
telescope in the world from 1917-1947.
 Doppler effect and z-parameter
In astronomy, the Doppler effect was originally studied
in the visible part of the electromagnetic spectrum.
Today, we observe all EM spectrum.

In the 1920's, Edwin Hubble realized that

all galaxies have a positive redshift.
λ of EM waves coming from stars are greater
than those obtained in the laboratory
emitted from same elements (He, H).
There are a handful of the nearby galaxies
that are blue shifted. Only local effect.

Andromeda galaxy actually

has a blueshift
 The shift in a spectral line from a galaxy emission spectrum is given by:
∆λ = λ– λ0
λ0 is the wavelength emitted by the source
λ is the wavelength measured on Earth

The measured red shifts are usually stated in terms of a z parameter.

∆λ 𝑣
𝑧= ≈ v is recession speed of the source
λ0 𝑐
c is the speed of light in vacuum
𝑣≪𝑐
Goal: the speed of the galaxy
 Hubble’s Law
• He also noticed the farther the galaxy
is, the greater the redshift, therefore
the greater the recessional velocity.

Recessional speed of the distant

galaxies is proportional to their
distance form Earth.

𝑣 = 𝐻0 𝑑 H0 is the Hubble constant.

(Doppler-shift-measured velocity)

v is usually being measured in km s−1 and d in Mpc,

H0 is usually measured in km s −1 Mpc −1 .
 How the Hubble constant may be determined.
• Measuring the distance to distant galaxies
• Measuring their recessional speed using Doppler effect
• Plotting a graph of v against distance.
• Hubble’s constant is equal to the gradient of the graph

Average value of Hubble’s constant is

72 km s-1 Mpc-1
This means that for every megaparsec to a
galaxy, the galaxy's speed away from us will
increase by 72 kilometers/second.

• There are uncertainties in the distances measured precisely because it is

quite difficult to measure distances to remote galaxies accurately.
Hubble’s Data (1929)

Not very
impressive

Hubble’s data had large uncertainties

From the gradient of the graph of Hubble’s data value for H0 is about
500 km s −1 Mpc−1.

Now that we have more reliable data we can see that Hubble’s intuition was
valid but, by using 1355 galaxies, data give a modern value for H0 is much
closer to 70 km s −1 Mpc−1. There is still uncertainty in the value of the Hubble
constant.
 Limitations to Hubble’s Law

The Hubble constant is a hotly contested quantity in astrophysics.

In order to precisely determine the value of Ho, we must determine
the distances to and velocities of many galaxies, preferably those
extremely far away

• When is easier to find distance, the problem is that the relative

velocities of neighboring galaxies are relatively small.
• At larger distances, a number of methods can be used to
determine the distance. Approximate methods.
EX: This question is about the Hubble constant.
(a) The value of the Hubble constant H0 is accepted by some astronomers to be
in the range 60 km s–1 Mpc–1 to 90 km s–1 Mpc–1.
(i) State and explain why it is difficult to determine a precise value of H0 (2)
(i) The Hubble constant is the constant of proportionality between the recessional
velocity of galaxies and their distance from Earth. The further galaxies are away
(from Earth) the more difficult it is to accurately determine how far away they are.
This is because of the difficulty of both locating a standard candle, such as finding
a Cepheid variable within the galaxy, and the difficulties of accurately measuring its
luminosity.

(ii) State one reason why it would be desirable to have a precise value of H0. (1)

(ii) Having a precise value of H0 would allow us to gain an accurate value of

the rate of expansion of the universe and to determine an accurate value to
distant galaxies. It would also allow us to determine a more reliable value for the
age of the universe.
b) The line spectrum of the light from the quasar 3C 273 contains a spectral line
of wavelength 750 nm. The wavelength of the same line, measured in the
laboratory, is 660 nm.
Using a value of H0 equal to 70 km s–1 Mpc–1, estimate the distance of the
quasar from Earth.

∆𝜆 = 90 × 10−9 𝑚
−9 −9
∆λ 𝑣 750 × 10 − 660 × 10
𝑧= ≈ → 𝑣 = 3 × 108 ×
λ0 𝑐 660 × 10−9

𝑣 = 4.1 × 107 𝑚𝑠 −1

𝑣 = 𝐻0 𝑑

4.1 × 104 𝑚𝑠 −1
𝑑= = 590 𝑀𝑝𝑐
70
 Why is Doppler effect so important?
1. red-shift of light from galaxies indicates that the universe is expanding.
The universe is moving apart and expanding in all directions.
The farther away they are, the faster they move. This is Hubble's Law.

2. So, if galaxies are moving away from each other then it they may
have been much closer together in the past.

Matter was concentrated in one point and some “explosion” may have
thrown the matter apart.
 Calculating the Age of the Universe
When did Big Bang happen?
𝑑 𝑑
𝑡= =
𝑣 𝐻0 𝑑
1
The time since the Big Bang is 𝑇=
𝐻0
This is called the Hubble time. Gives how long it took for the
galaxies to reach their current separation.
It is the same for all of the galaxies!!

• This is only an upper band as the Universe expanded faster at the beginning
(this would imply a younger Universe). The Universe cannot be older than
this.
Assuming that Hubble’s law has held true for all galaxies at all times, the light from
the most distant star (at the edge of the observable universe) has taken the age of
the universe to travel to us. If the light was emitted immediately after the time of
the Big Bang, the space between the galaxy and the Earth must have expanded at
slightly less than the speed of light for the light to have just reached us.
 1
Hubble’s time 𝑇 =
H0

• The value of Hubble’s time with H0 = 70 km s-1 Mpc-1

1
=
72 × 103 𝑚𝑠 −1 𝑀𝑝𝑐 −1
1 6 𝑝𝑐
= × 10
72 × 103 𝑚𝑠 −1
1 6 × 3.09 × 1016 𝑚
= × 10
72 × 103 𝑚𝑠 −1

= 4.29 × 1017 𝑠

= 13.6 × 109 𝑦𝑟
 Big Band – the theory that won
Until the 1960s there were two competing theories of the origin of the universe.

Steady State Theory (Hermann Bondi, Thomas Gold, and Fred Hoyle 1948)
The density of matter in the expanding universe remains unchanged due to a
continuous creation of matter, thus adhering to the
perfect cosmological principle, a principle that asserts
that observable universe is basically the same at any time
as well as at any place.

Big Bang theory: One aspect of the Big Bang theory is that it suggested a very high
temperature early universe that cooled as the universe expanded.
For some time (379,000 years after the Big Bang), the universe was opaque, due to
In 1948,
the Gamow,
scattering Alpher,(ofand
of photons ALLHerman predicted
wavelengths) off freethat the (and, to aDensity of galaxies falls
electrons
significantly
universe lessershow
should extent,
thefree protons).of
spectrum Due to the coolingemitter
a black-body of the universe to the
point where the rate of recombination of electrons and protons to form neutral as universe expands
at a temperature of about 3 K. In the Big Bang model,
hydrogen was higher than the reionaziation rate, universe became increasingly
at approximately
transparent as more × 105 years
4 electrons and after thecombined
protons formation of the
to form universe,
neutral hydrogen atoms.
the temperature
While electrons in had cooled
neutral to about
hydrogen 3000 photons
can absorb K and the charged
of SOME ion matter
wavelengths by was
able
goingtotoattract electrons
an excited state, a to form neutral
universe atoms.
full of neutral This meant
hydrogen will bethat spaceopaque
relatively had
only at those
become absorbedto
transparent wavelengths, but transparent
electromagnetic radiation, throughout
allowingmost of the to escape
radiation
inspectrum. The Dark
all directions Ages start when
(previously, at that matter
point, because thereitwere
was ionic, no light
had been sourcesto
opaque other
than the gradually darkening cosmic background radiation.)
radiation).
 Background radiation
In 1960 two physicists, Dicke and Peebles, realising that there was more He than it
could be produced by stars, proposed that in the beginning of the Universe it was at a
sufficiently high temperature to produce He by fusion.

In this process a great amount of highly energetic radiation was produced.

However, as the Universe expanded and cooled, the energy of that radiation
decreased as wavelength increased. They predicted that the actual photons would
have an maximum λ (around 7 cm) corresponding to a black body spectrum of 3K.

So, they started to look for microwave radiation.

Shortly after this prediction, Penzias and Wilson

were working with a microwave aerial and found
that no matter in what direction they pointed
the aerial it picked up a steady, continuous
annoying background radiation.

Smoking gun for Big

Bang theory was found.
 Background radiation
The background picture on this slide is the smoking gun for inflation theory.
March
In every 2014: using athere
direction, specialis telescope
a very lowlocated
energyatand
thevery
South Pole, The
uniform Wilkinson
radiation that we
seeMicrowave AnisotropyThis
filling the Universe. Probe (WMAP),
is called the scientists
3 Degreecaptured and analyzed
Kelvin Background the faint or
Radiation, glow
the
left over
Cosmic from theRadiation,
Background Big Bang – or gravitational wavesBackground.
the Microwave in the universe’s fossil radiation. It is
primordial cosmic microwave background radiation. It hints at unification of the
fundamental
These names forces at energies
come 10 trillions of times higher than those accessible at
about because
theradiation
this Large Hadron Collider ata CERN.
is essentially black WMAP was able to show that, on a finer scale,
therewith
body are some fluctuations
temperature in the
slightly lessisotropy of the CMB; this indicates the seeds of
galaxies
than in the early
3 degrees Kelvinuniverse.
(about 2.76 K),
For decades,
which peaks inGuth, Linde and other
the microwave portiontheorists have advanced the view that the
ofuniverse somehow inflated itself to huge size in as little as an undecillionth of a
the spectrum.
second (10-36 s).
These findings show that the universe underwent a burst of inflation that was
seemingly faster than the speed of light in the first instant of its existence, throwing
off a storm of exotic gravitational waves in the process.
Why is the background radiation an evidence for the Big Bang?
The CMB in the sky looks essentially the same in all directions (it is “isotropic”) and
does not vary with the time of day; this provides compelling support for the Big Bang
model. With the discovery of CMB, the advocates of the steady state theory were
forced to concede to the strength of evidence.
 Big Bang
It postulates that 12 to 14 billion years ago, the singular point at which space, time,
matter and energy were created. It has since expanded from this hot dense state into
the vast and much cooler cosmos we currently inhabit.
We can see remnants of this hot dense matter as the now very cold cosmic
microwave background radiation which still pervades the universe and is visible to
microwave detectors as a uniform glow across the entire sky.

Main evidence:
Expansion of the Universe – the Universe is expanding (redshift)  it was once smaller
 it must have started expanding sometime  “explosion”
Background radiation  evidence of an hot Universe that cooled as it expanded
He abundance  He produced by stars is little  there is no other explanation for the
abundance of He in the Universe than the Big Bang model.
 Fate of the Universe

The eventual fate of the Universe is determined by the amount of mass in the Universe.

Universe

Closed Open Flat

Enough matter  Not enough matter Critical density 

density is not enough density is such that Universe will only
to allow an infinite gravity is too weak to start to contract after
expansion  gravity stop the Universe an infinite amount of
will stop the Universe expanding forever time
expansion and cause it
to contract (Big Crunch)
 Critical density – the density of the Universe that separates a universe that will expand
forever (open universe) and one that will re-colapse (closed universe).

So, how do we measure the density of the Universe?

If we take in account all the mass (stars) that we can see then the total mass
would not be enough to keep the galaxies orbiting about a cluster centre

So, there must be some matter that can not be seen – dark matter.

Dark Matter is matter that emits minimal or no light, BUT does have
gravitational influence. Evidence for dark matter appears to be present in
• the motion of stars in galaxies.
• the orbits of galaxies in galaxy clusters
• the temperature of intracluster in galaxy clusters
• the gravitational lensing of distant galaxies

Some possible types of dark matter include:

• MACHOS (Massive compact halo objects) – brown and black dwarfs and Jupiter-sized planets that
exist in halos of galaxies. Or similar cold objects and even black holes.

• WIMPS (Weakly interacting massive particles) – These are subatomic particles that have
extremely small masses, but exist in great quantities. Neutrinos are an example of a such particle.
 The redshift equation and the cosmic scale factor
Although the cause of the redshift is the stretching of space rather than a constantly
moving source, the electromagnetic Doppler equation holds true and can be used in
∆𝜆
astrophysics where the redshift ratio is denoted by the symbol z, giving
𝜆0

∆𝜆 𝑣
𝑧= ≈
𝜆0 𝑐

Because CMB suggests that the universe is essentially isotropic and homogeneous at any point in
space at a chosen (proper) time after the Big Bang, it is essentially true that the destiny of matter
should be the same throughout the universe. Soon after the Big Bang the density would have
been greater and at later smaller. The expansion of the universe can be considered to be a
rescaling of it. As the universe expands, all distances are streched with the cosmic scale factor R.
In other words, if the radiation had wavelength λ0 when it was emitted but λ when it was
detected, the cosmic scale factor would have changed from R0 to R. This means that space has
stretched by an amount ∆R in the time that the wavelength has stretched by the amount ∆λ.
Hubble’s law holds because, rather than galaxies receding from one another, space is expanding;
this results in the redshift being a Hubble redshift as opposed to a Doppler redshift.

∆𝜆 𝑣 ∆𝜆 ∆𝑅 𝑅 − 𝑅0 𝑅
≈ and 𝑧= = = = −1
𝜆0 𝑐 𝜆0 𝑅0 𝑅0 𝑅0
EX: A distant quasar is detected to have a redshift of value = 5.6.
(a) Calculate the speed at which the quasar is
currently moving relative to the Earth.

(b) Estimate the ratio of the current size of the universe to its size
when the quasar the emitted photons that were detected.
Type Ia supernovae and the accelerating universe
In the late 1990s, Type Ia supernovae were found to offer key evidence
regarding the expansion of the universe. By using Type Ia supernovae as
standard candles to estimate galactic distances up to around 1000 Mpc and
measuring their redshifts, strong evidence was obtained suggesting the
universe might currently be undergoing an accelerated expansion. The
universe is known to contain a significant amount of ordinary matter that has a
tendency to slow down its expansion. Acceleration, therefore, would require
some sort of invisible energy source and, although none has been directly
observed, it has been named “dark energy”.
What is DARK ENERGY?
• It is the term used for a possible unseen influence that may be causing
the universal expansion to accelerate. As same as dark matter, dark
energy has been one of the most mysterious issues it exists in science.

• Dark energy is hypotetical form of energy that permeates all of space

and produces a negative pressure, resulting in repulsive gravitational
force. Dark energy may account for accelerating expansion of the
universe, as will as most of its mass. Recent obseravtions of
supernovae have produced a value for an acceleration that implies a
universe that is about 70% dark energy.

It can not be seen with today

technologies, as dark matter.
It might be that once again we are wrong about
gravitation, so

● there was Newton

● then there was Einstein

● And there might be ???????

 Precision Cosmology
“…as we know, there are known knowns;
there are things we know we know.
We also know there are known
unknowns; that is to say we know there
are some things we do not know.
But there are also unknown unknowns --
the ones we don't know we don't know.”