MODULE 2

PERSONALITY
 The overall profile or combination of characteristics that capture
the unique nature of a person as that person reacts and interacts
with others.
Combines a set of physical and mental characteristics that
reflect how a person looks, thinks, acts, and feels.
Predictable relationships are expected between people’s
personalities and their behaviors.
Personality refers to the set of traits & behaviors that
characterize an individual.

It refers to the relatively stable pattern of behavior &

consistent internal state & explains an individual’s
behavioral tendencies.

Personality has both internal (thoughts, values & genetic

characteristics that is inferred from observable behaviors)
& external (observable behaviors) elements.

Personality of an individual is relatively stable in nature.

Personality is both inherited as well as it can be shaped

by the environment.
Law of Behavior: “People are different”

To ensure high performing employees in an

organization.

To manage workforce diversity.

Summarizing person’s behaviors & attitudes in

relation to a wide range of events.

Personality consists of characteristics or traits that

describe how people are likely to behave in a given
situation.
 Personality is useful in predicting & understanding
the general feelings, thoughts and behaviors of
individuals at the workplace.

Contribution of various personality theories.

Shaping of Personality
 Freud’s Stages of Personality Development

Stage Age MajorCharacteristics

Oral 0-1 year Interestin oral gratification from sucking, eating,
mouthing, and biting.
Anal 1-3years Gratification from expelling and withholding faeces; coming to
terms with society’s controls relating to toilet-training
Phallic 3-4years lnterest in the genitals,coming to terms with Oedipal conflict,
leading to identification with same-sex parent
Latency 4-6yearsto Sexual concerns large unimportant
adolescence
Genital Adolescence Re-emergence of sexual interests and establishment
toadulthood of mature sexual relationships.
Comparisonof Freud’sandErikson’sStageTheories

Approximate Freud’sPsychosexual Erikson’s Psychosocialage

Stages Stages
Firstyear Oral Basictrust Vs mistrust
2-3years Anal Autonomy Vs shame, doubt
3-5years Phallic Initiative Vs guilt
6yearstopuberty Latency Industry Vs inferiority
Adolescence Genital Identity Vs role confusion
Early adulthood — Intimacy Vs isolation
Middle Adult — General activity Vs Stagnation
hood
Lateadulthood — IntegrityVs despair
 Determinants of
Personality
Family

Heredity Environment

Nature: It advocates that

Part of personality finds its Nature: It advocates that
Origins in biology (heredity) Part of personality finds its
Origins in biology (heredity)

Situational
 Heredity sets the limits on the development of personality
characteristics.

Environment determines development within these limits.

About a 50-50 heredity-environment split.

Cultural values and norms play a substantial role in the

development of personality.

Social factors include family life, religion, and many kinds of

formal and informal groups.

Situational factors reflect the opportunities or constraints

imposed by the operational context.
 Enduring characteristics that describe an individual’s
behavior.

Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)

The Big Five Model

Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)
A personality test that taps four characteristics and
classifies people into 1 of 16 personality types.

Personality Types
• Extroverted vs. Introverted (E or I)
• Sensing vs. Intuitive (S or N)
• Thinking vs. Feeling (T or F)
• Judging vs. Perceiving (P or J)
 Extroverted vs. Introverted

Extroverted individuals are outgoing, sociable, and assertive. Introverts are quiet
and shy.

Sensitive vs. Intuitive

Sensing types are practical and prefer routine and order. They focus on details.
Intuitive rely on unconscious processes and look at the “big picture”.

Thinking vs. Feeling

Thinking types uses reason and logic to handle problems. Feelings types rely on
their personal values and emotions.

Judging vs. Perceiving

Judging types want control, and prefer their world to be ordered and structured.
Perceiving types are flexible and spontaneous.
Personality Structure (The “Big Five” Traits)

Dimension
Characteristics of a person
Scoring +vely on the dimension

Extroversion Outgoing, Talkative,

Sociable,
Assertive

Trusting, good natured,

Agreeableness
Cooperative, softhearted

Dependable, responsible,
Conscientiousness
Achievement-oriented

Emotional Stability Relaxed, Secure, Unworried

Openness to Sensitive, Intellectual,

Experience Imaginative, Broadminded
 Major Personality Attributes Influencing OB

Achievement orientation
Authoritative

Self Esteem
Locus of
Personality Traits
Control

Risk taking

Machiavellianism

Self-Monitoring

Introverts/
Extroverts

Type A & B
Locus of Control
The degree to which people believe they
are masters of their own fate.

Internals
Individuals who believe that they
control what happens to them.

Externals
Individuals who believe that
what happens to them is
controlled by outside forces
such as luck or chance.
Degree to which an individual is pragmatic, maintains
emotional distance, and believes that ends justify
means.

“If it works, use it” is consistent with a high-Mach

perspective.

Conditions Favoring High Machs

• Direct interaction
• Minimal rules and regulations
• Distracting emotions
 People with a high-Machiavellian personality:

-- Approach situations logically and thoughtfully.

-- Are capable of lying to achieve personal goals.

-- Are rarely swayed by loyalty, friendships, past

promises, or others’ opinions.

-- Are skilled at influencing others.

-- Try to exploit loosely structured situations.

-- Perform in a perfunctory or detached manner in

highly structured situations.
People with a low-Machiavellian personality:

-- Accept direction imposed by others in loosely

structured situations.

-- Work hard to do well in highly structured

situations.

-- Are strongly guided by ethical considerations.

-- Are unlikely to lie or cheat.

Self-Esteem (SE)
Individuals’ degree of liking
or disliking themselves.
 Self-Esteem
How much you value yourself and your
abilities, skills and accomplishments. You
believe setbacks are temporary. You have
confidence to confront challenges and
overcome them.
Having good self-esteem will also affect
your overall attitude and the health
choices you make
 Self-Esteem
Self-Esteem is a combination of self -
image, ideal self, and Pygmalion-self
Self Image: what we perceive ourselves
to be
Ideal-self: how we want to be
Pygmalion-self: our perception of what
we believe other people think of us.

Organizational Behavior / Perception 24

 SELF EFFICACY
Psychologist Albert Bandura defined self-efficacy as
an individual's belief that he or she will be able to
accomplish a specific task.
Your beliefs become your thoughts. Your thoughts
become your words. Your words become your
actions. Your actions become your habits. Your
habits become your values. Your values become
your destiny.
 Self-efficacy
Where does self-efficacy come from and how can
you get more of it? The originator of the theory,
Albert Bandura names four sources of efficacy
beliefs.
 Mastery Experiences
 Vicarious Experiences
 Verbal Persuasion
 Emotional & Physiological States
Personality Types
Type A’s
1. are always moving, walking, and eating rapidly;
2. feel impatient with the rate at which most events take place;
3. strive to think or do two or more things at once;
4. cannot cope with leisure time;
5. are obsessed with numbers, measuring their success in
terms of how many or how much of everything they acquire.

Type B’s
1. never suffer from a sense of time urgency with its
accompanying impatience;
2. feel no need to display or discuss either their achievements
or accomplishments;
3. play for fun and relaxation, rather than to exhibit their
superiority at any cost;
4. can relax without guilt.
Proactive Personality
Identifies opportunities,
shows initiative, takes
action, and perseveres
until meaningful change
occurs.
Creates positive change
in the environment,
regardless or even in
spite of constraints or
obstacles.
 Personality-Job Fit
Theory (Holland)
Identifies six personality Personality Types
types and proposes that • Realistic
the fit between personality • Investigative
type and occupational
environment determines • Social
satisfaction and turnover. • Conventional
• Enterprising
Person-Organization Fit • Artistic
 What Is Perception, and Why Is It Important?
Perception
A process by which
individuals organize and
interpret their sensory
impressions in order to
give meaning to their
environment.
© 2005 Prentice Hall Inc. All
rights reserved.
• People’s behavior is
based on their
perception of what
reality is, not on
reality itself.
• The world as it is
perceived is the world
that is behaviorally
important.
5–32
“ WE DON’T SEE THINGS AS THEY

ARE, WE SEE THINGS AS WE ARE.”

 Perception

“ The study of perception is concerned with identifying the process

through which we interpret and organize sensory information to
produce our conscious experience of objects and object relationship.”

“ Perception is the process of receiving information about and making

sense of the world around us. It involves deciding which information to
notice, how to categorize this information and how to interpret it within
the framework of existing knowledge.

“ A process by which individuals organize and interpret their sensory

impressions in order to give meaning to their environment.

Organizational Behavior / Perception 34

Factors influencing perception
A number of factors operate to shape and sometimes

distort perception. These factors can reside in the

perceiver, in the object or target being perceived or in

the context of the situation in which the perception is

made.

Organizational Behavior / Perception 35

Factors influencing Perception
Factors in the perceiver
• Attitudes
• Motives
• Interests
• Experience
• Expectations

Factors in the situation

Perception
• Time
• Work Setting
• Social Setting
Factors in the Target
• Novelty
• Motion
• Sounds
• Size
• Background
• Proximity
• Similarity
Organizational Behavior / Perception 36
The Perceptual Process

1. Sensation 3.Organization
 An individual’s ability to  The process of placing
detect stimuli in the selected perceptual
immediate stimuli into a
environment. framework for
2. Selection “storage.”
 The process a person 4.Translation
uses to eliminate some  The stage of the
of the stimuli that have perceptual process at
been sensed and to which stimuli are
retain others for further interpreted and given
processing. meaning.
Organizational Behavior / Perception 37
 Perceptual Process Selecting Stimuli
External factors : Nature,
Receiving Stimuli Location,Size,contrast,
(External & Internal) Movement,repetition,similarity
Internal factors : Learning,
needs, Psychological, age,Interest,

Organizing
Interpreting Figure Background ,
Attribution ,Stereotyping, Perceptual Grouping
Halo Effect, Projection ( similarity, proximity,
closure, continuity)

Response
Covert: Attitudes ,
Motivation,
Feeling
Overt: Behavior
Organizational Behavior / Perception 38
 Frequently Used Shortcuts in Judging Others

Halo Effect
Drawing a general impression
about an individual on the
basis of a single characteristic

Contrast Effects
Evaluation of a person’s characteristics that
are affected by comparisons with other
people recently encountered who rank higher
or lower on the same characteristics.

© 2005 Prentice Hall Inc. All

rights reserved. 5–39
 Frequently Used Shortcuts in Judging Others

Projection
Attributing one’s own
characteristics to other
people.
Stereotyping
Judging someone on the
basis of one’s perception of
the group to which that
person belongs.

© 2005 Prentice Hall Inc. All

rights reserved. 5–40
Organizational Behavior / Perception 41
Organizational Behavior / Perception 42
Organizational Behavior / Perception 43
Organizational Behavior / Perception 44
Organizational Behavior / Perception 45
 Learning
• Learning is the process of acquiring new
or modifying
existing knowledge, behaviors, skills,
values, or preferences
• Overview of learning theory and principles
that serve as a foundation and point of
departure for presenting the behavioral
management approach
 Learning Theory Background
• Behavioristic theories
– Classical conditioning
• Pavlov’s classical conditioning experiment
• Neutral stimulus, paired with unconditioned
stimulus, becomes a conditioned stimulus and
elicits a conditioned response
– Operant conditioning
• Learning that occurs as a consequence of
behavior
 Learning Theory Background
Continued

• Examples of classic and operant conditioning

 Learning Theory Background
Continued

• Cognitive Theories
– Relationship between cognitive environmental
cues and expectation
 Learning Theory Background
Continued

• Social learning and social cognitive theory

– Social learning
• Learning can also take place via vicarious, or
modeling, and self-control processes.
– Social cognition
• Identifies capabilities that initiate, regulate, and
sustain behavior:
– Symbolizing, forethought, vicarious/modeling learning,
selfregulation, and self-reflection.
 Learning Theory Background
Continued

• Social learning and social cognitive theory

(continued)
– Modeling processes
• Involves interrelated subprocesses, such as:
– Attention, retention, motoric reproduction, and
reinforcement.
– Self-efficacy
• Beliefs in one’s capabilities to organize and
execute the courses of action required to produce
given attainments
 Principles of Learning:
Reinforcement and Punishment
• Laws of behavior
– Law of effect
– Extinction principle or law
• Critique of reinforcement theory
– Person’s cognitive rationalizations might
neutralize them
• Reinforcement as used in behavioral
management
– Rewards and reinforcers
Principles of Learning: Reinforcement
and Punishment Continued
• Positive and negative reinforcers
Principles of Learning: Reinforcement
and Punishment Continued
• Use of punishment
– Meaning of punishment
• Weakens behavior and tends to decrease its
subsequent frequency
– Administering punishment
– Guidelines for discipline
• Always attempt to reinforce instead of punish in
order to change behavior
 Role of Organizational Reward
Systems
• Analysis of money as a reinforcer
• Nonfinancial rewards
– Social recognition and attention
– Performance feedback
 Role of Organizational Reward
Systems Continued
• Nonfinancial rewards (continued) - Categories
 Attitude
• A favorable or unfavorable evaluative
reaction toward something or someone,
exhibited in ones beliefs, feelings, or
intended behavior.
• It is a social orientation - an underlying
inclination to respond to something either
favorably or unfavorably.
 Attitude
Components

Affective Behavioural

Cognitive
 Attitude
Components
Cognitive component
The opinion or belief segment of an attitude.

Affective Component
The emotional or feeling segment of an attitude.

Behavioral Component
An intention to behave in a certain way toward someone or
something.
 Functions Of
Attitude
Adjustment Ego
Defensive

Attitude

Knowledge Value
expression
 Functions Of
Attitude
The Adjustment Function : Attitudes often help
people to adjust to their work environment.
Ego-Defensive Function : Attitudes help people
to retain their dignity and self- image.
The Value-Expressive Function : Attitudes
provide individuals with a basis for expressing
their values.
The Knowledge Function : Attitudes provide
standards and frames of reference that allow
people to understand and perceive the world
around him.
 Formation Of
Attitude
Mass Experience with Classical
Object
Communication Conditioning

Economic Attitude Operant

Status Conditioning

Vicarious
Neighbourhood Family and
Peer Groups Learning
 Formation Of
Attitude
Experience with Object : Attitude can develop
from a personally rewarding or punishing
experience with a object.
Classical Conditioning :It involves involuntary
responses and is acquired through the pairing of
two stimuli.
Operant Conditioning : It is based on the “Law
of Effect” and involves voluntary responses
,Behaviors.
Vicarious Learning : Formation of attitude by
observing behaviour of others and consequences
of that behaviour.
 Continued
….
Family and Peer Groups : A person may learn
attitudes through imitation of parents.
Neighbourhood : Involves being told what attitudes
to have by parents, schools, community organizations,
religious doctrine, friends, etc.
Economic Status : Our Economical and occupational
positions also contribute to attitude formation.
Mass Communication :
Television,Radio,Newspaper and magazine feed
their audiences large quantities of information.
 Methods To Bring Attitude Change

Providing Information

Use of Fear

Resolving Discrepancies

Influence of Friends and Peers

Communication

Society
 Barriers To Attitude Change
PRIOR COMMITMENTS

STRONG COMMITMENT

PUBLICLY EXPRESSED ATTITUDES

LOW CREDIBILITY

INSUFFICIENT INFORMATION

DEGREE OF FEAR
 Values
• “Value” – from the Latin “valere”: “to be strong”,
“to be worth”
– Values are feelings and convictions regarding what is
of “strong worth” (i.e. “important”) to us in what we
think, say or do
– “A value is a principle or a quality that is considered
worthwhile or desirable… validated by social
approval.” M. Kapani, Education in Human Values
• Values are inherent in all societies – ideals and shared
beliefs that bond a community together

69
 What is a value?
• Qualities, characteristics, or ideas about which
we feel strongly.
• Our values affect our decisions, goals and
behavior.
• A belief or feeling that someone or something is
worthwhile.
• Values define what is of worth, what is
beneficial, and what is harmful
• Values are standards to guide your action,
judgments, and attitudes.
 Categories of Values

• Personal

• Social

• Economic

• Political

• Religious
 BETARI BOX MODEL

MY ATTITUDE

AFFECTS AFFECTS

YOUR BEHAVIOR MY BEHAVIOR

AFFECTS AFFECTS

YOUR ATTITUDE