ENGINEERING DESIGN

(DMCD 3523)
SHAFIZAL BIN MAT
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering
Universiti Teknikal Malaysia Melaka

Tel: 012-3901784/06-2332491
Email: shafizal@utem.edu.my
Room: 8/6/88 (academic building)
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 CHAPTER 2
DESIGN AGAINST STATIC
LOAD

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 INTRODUCTION
 What is strength?
 Strength is a property or characteristic of mechanical
element.
 What is Static Load?
 Stationary force applied to a member. To be stationary
the force should be unchanging in magnitude and
directions.
 A static load can produce axial tension or compression,
a shear load, a bending load, a torsional load or any
combination of these.
 Purpose: relationship between strength and static
loading in order to make decisions concerning material
and its treatment, fabrication, geometry, safety,
reliability, usability, manufacturability, etc.
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 CONTENT
 Modes of Failure
 Factor of Safety
 Representing Stress on a Stress Element
 Direct Stresses: Tension and Compression
 Deformation Under Direct Axial Loading
 Direct Shear Stress
 Torsional Shear Stress
 Torsional Deformation
 Torsion in Members Having Noncircular Cross Sections

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 CONTENT
 Vertical Shearing Stress
 Stress Due to Bending
 Flexural center for beams
 Beam With Concentrated Bending Moments
 Combined Normal Stresses: Superposition Principle
 Stress Concentrations Factors

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 Mode of Failures
 Ductile material is one which has relatively large
tensile strain before fracture takes place. For
example, steel and aluminum.
 Brittle material has a relatively small tensile strain
before fracture. For example, cast iron.

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 Factor of Safety
 Factor of safety (FS) is defined by either of the
equation;

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 REPRESENTING STRESS ON A
STRESS ELEMENT
 Positive shear stresses tend to rotate the element in a
clockwise direction
 Negative shear stresses tend to rotate the element in a
counterclockwise direction

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 DIRECT STRESSES: TENSION
AND COMPRESSION
 Stress: Internal resistance offered by a unit area
of material to an external load
 Perpendicular to element

 Compressive stresses: Crushing action. Negative

by convention.
 Tensile: Pulling action. Positive by convention.

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 DIRECT STRESSES: TENSION
AND COMPRESSION
normal stress,  
force F
area

A
N 
m 2 See example
3-1

Conditions:
• load-carry member must be straight
• line of action of the load must pass through the
centroid of cross section of the member
• member must be of uniform cross section
• member must be short in the case of
compression members 10
 DEFORMATION UNDER
DIRECT AXIAL LOADING
FL L
  m See example
EA E 3-2

Where:
 = total deformation of the member carrying the
axial
F = direct axial load
L = original load length of the member
E = modulus of elasticity of the material
A = cross-sectional area of the member
 = direct/normal stress 11
 DIRECT SHEAR STRESS
 Occurs when the applied force tends to cut through the
member as scissors. Ex: tendency for a key to be sheared
off at the section between the shaft and the hub of a
machine element when transmitting torque (see next
slide).
 Apply force is assumed to be uniformly distributed
across the cross section.


shearing force F
 N m2  See example
area in shear As 3-3

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DIRECT SHEAR STRESS

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 TORSIONAL SHEAR STRESS
A torque will twist a member, causing a shear stress in
the member

 max 
Tc T

J Zp
N 
m2 See example
3-6

A general shear stress formula:

Tr

J

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 TORSIONAL SHEAR STRESS

Where:
T = torque
c = radius of shaft to its outside surface
J = polar moment of inertia (Appendix 1)
r = radial distance from the center of the shaft to the
point of interest
Zp = polar section modulus (Appendix 1)

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 TORSIONAL SHEAR STRESS
 The distribution of stress is not uniform across the cross
section

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 TORSIONAL DEFORMATION


TL
deg See example
GJ 3-7

Where:
T = torque
L = length of the shaft over which the angle of twist
is being computed
G = modulus of elasticity of the shaft material in
shear
J = polar moment of inertia (Appendix 1)
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 TORSION IN MEMBERS
HAVING NONCIRCULAR
CROSS-SECTIONS
CIRCULAR NONCIRCULAR
SECTION SECTION

 max 
Tc T

J Zp
 max 
T
Q
N m2 

TL 
TL
rad 
GJ GK
See example
3-8

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 TORSION IN
MEMBERS
HAVING
NONCIRCULAR
CROSS-
SECTIONS

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 VERTICAL SHEAR STRESS
 Beam carrying transverse loads experience shearing
forces (V) which cause shearing stress:


VQ
It
N m 2
; Q  Ap y m 
3 See example
3-10

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 VERTICAL SHEAR STRESS

Where:
V = shearing force
Q = first moment
I = moment of inertia
t = thickness of the section
Ap = area of the section above the place where the
shearing force is to be computed
y = distance from the neutral axis of the section to
the centroid of the area Ap

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 VERTICAL SHEAR STRESS
 In the analysis of beams, it is usual to compute the
variation in shearing force across the entire length of
the beam and to draw the shearing force diagram.
 Vertical shear stress = Horizontal shear stress, because
any element of material subjected to a shear stress on
one face must have a shear stress of the same
magnitude on the adjacent face for the element to be in
equilibrium.

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 STRESS DUE TO BENDING
 A beam is a member that carries load transverse to its axis.
Such loads produce bending moments in the beam, which
result in the development of bending stress.
 Bending stress are normal stresses, that is, either tensile or
compressive.
 The maximum bending stress in a beam cross section will
occur in the part farthest from the neutral axis of the section.
At that point, the flexure formula gives the stress:

flexure formula; 
Mc
I
N m2 

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 STRESS DUE TO BENDING

Where:
M = magnitude of bending moment at the section
c = distance from the neutral axis to the outermost
fiber of the beam cross section
I = moment of inertia

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 STRESS DUE TO BENDING
 The flexure formula was developed subject to the following
conditions:
- Beam must pure bending. No shearing stress and axial loads.
- Beam must not twist or be subjected to torsional load.
- Material of beam must obey Hooke’s law
- Modulus of elasticity of the material must be the same in
both tension and compression.
- Beam is initially straight and has constant cross section.
- No part of the beam shape fails because of buckling or
wrinkling.

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STRESS DUE TO BENDING

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 STRESS DUE TO BENDING
 For design, it is convenient to define the term section
modulus, S:
SI c [m3 ]

 The flexure formula then becomes:

 M S [ N m2 ]

 Then, in design, it is usual to define a design stress, d ,and

with the bending moment known, then:
S  M d [m3 ]
See example
3-12
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 FLEXURAL CENTER FOR
BEAMS
 To ensure symmetrical bending i.e. no tendency to twist
under loading, action of load pass through the line of
symmetry:

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 FLEXURAL CENTER FOR
BEAMS
 If there is no vertical axis symmetry:

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BEAMS WITH CONCENTRATED
BENDING MOMENTS
 Beams with concentrated forces or distributed load,
moment diagrams are continuous
 Machine elements that carry loads whose line of action
is offset from centroidal axis of beams, a concentrated
moment is exerted
 Examples: cranks, levers, helical gears, etc.

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BEAMS WITH CONCENTRATED
BENDING MOMENTS

Bending on a
shaft carrying a
crank

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 COMBINED NORMAL
STRESSES: SUPERPOSITION
PRINCIPLE
 When the same cross section of a load-carrying member
is subjected to both a direct tensile and compressive
stress and a stress due to bending, the resulting normal
stress can be computed by the method of superposition:

 
Mc F
I

A
N m2 

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 STRESS CONCENTRATIONS
FACTORS
 From figure below, the highest stress occurs in the fillet

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 CONCLUSION
NORMAL STRESS

DIRECT STRESS:
STRESS DUE
TENSION &
TO BENDING
COMPRESSION SHEAR STRESS

SUPERPOSITION DIRECT VERTICAL

PRINCIPLE SHEAR STRESS SHEARING STRESS

TORSIONAL
SHEAR STRESS

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THANK YOU

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