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Runaway Reaction
1
Potential Ignition Sources in Process Plants
• Flames; radio frequency (RF)
• hot work;
emissions;
• hot surfaces;
• hot particles; smoking;
3
Electrical Area Classification
4
Static Electricity, Lightning, & Stray
Current Protection
• Lightning Protection: Building structures that are
nonconductive can be equipped with air terminal
(“lightning rod”) conductors and ground terminal
systems to safely direct lightning strikes to ground
Grounding Bonding
6
Information Sources
BS5345:1977 Code of Practice for the Selection,
Installation and Maintenance of Electrical Apparatus
for Use in Potentially Explosive Atmospheres (Other
than Mining Applications or Explosive Processing and
Manufacture)
Area Classification Code for Petroleum Installations
(IP, 1990 MCSP Pt15)
In USA, Article 500 of NFPA 70: 1990 National
Electrical Code
API RP 500: 1991 Recommended Practice for
Classification of Locations for Electrical Installations
and Petroleum Facilities
7
Zones of Hazardous Area
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Hazardous Area Classification
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Hazardous Area Classification
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Hazardous Area Classification
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Hazardous Area Classification
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Hazardous Area Classification
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Strategies to HAC
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Steps to HAC
Identify Leaks:
• Define its characteristics (for startup, shutdown, emergency
and normal operations)
• Use guidance for separation distances to determine area around
leak source from which ignition sources need to be eliminated
15
Hot Work
16
Personal Ignition Sources
17
CCPS GFP, 2004
Personal Ignition Sources
18
Flame Arrestors
A flame arrestor is a device which allows gas to
pass through it but stops a flame in order to
prevent a larger fire or explosion
Operating principle: removing heat from the
flame as it attempts to travel through narrow
passages with walls of metal or other heat-
conductive material
Typical applications
• on vents of storage tanks containing flammable liquids
• on pipe systems supplying fuel gas to burners
• on certain pipelines conveying flammable gases within the
plant
• on flare stacks
20
Lees' Loss Prevention, 2012.
Flame Arrestors
21 http://www.paradoxintellectual.com/how-flame-arresters-work.html
Static Electricity
Despite considerable efforts, serious explosions and
fires have occurred because of static electricity
Prevention is developed by understanding the
fundamentals and using these fundamentals to
design features within a plant to prevent the
accumulation of static charges
For unavoidable static charges, inert the
atmosphere around the regions where static sparks
are likely to occur
Static charge is generated by separating a good
conductor from a poor conductor (e.g., insulator)
Example : placing different materials in tumble
dryer and resulting clinging fabrics
22
Processes where Static Electricity Effects
are Significant
Liquid-Solid • Flow of liquid through pipes, filters
• Splash filling of tanks
Liquid-Liquid • Mixing of immiscible liquids
• Settling of drops of one fluid through another
Gas-Liquid • Cleaning with wet steam
• Spraying with water
• Steam leaks
• Gas sparging
Gas-Solid • Pneumatic conveying
• Fluidized beds
• Dust filters
• Solids feeding
Solid-Solid • Belt drives
• Conveyor belts
• Reeling of paper or plastics
• Shrink wrapping
23
Charge Accumulation
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Is there an Electrostatic Discharge
Hazard present?
Are sensitive flammable materials present? NO
(Flammable vapours, gases, aerosols, fine dusts, etc.)
YES
Is static electricity generated? NO
(Friction, contact, separation)
YES
Can electrostatic charge accumulate? NO
(Insulating materials, isolated conductors,
capacitors, the human body)
YES
NO
Can electrostatic discharges occur?
(Sparks, brush and propagating brush discharges)
YES
Is the discharge energy sufficient to cause ignition? NO
(Compare the discharge energy with the Minimum
Ignition Energy (MIE) of the flammable media)
YES
Electrostatic No electrostatic NO
discharge ignition Discharge hazard
Hazard present present
25
Electrostatic Discharges
Spark discharge:
• Between liquid or solid conductors
• luminous discharge channel
• The discharge is rapid and accompanied by an audible crack
Brush discharge:
• Between a non-conductor and a conductor.
• brush-like appearance
26
Crowl & Louvar, 2011
Electrostatic Discharges (contd.)
Corona discharge
• Involves a small pointed conductor
• characterized by a hissing sound and a glow.
• Much lower energy density than in a spark.
• Equipment that might promote corona discharges
• dipsticks
• thermocouple probes
• agitators and shafts, etc.
Q2
J
2C
30
Relaxation Time
coulombs kg
I S (charge)( flowrate)
kg s
32
Electrostatic Voltage Drops
Fluid flows through the feed line and drops into the
tank. The streaming current builds up a charge and
voltage in the feed line to the vessel and in the vessel
itself.
V IsR
L
R
cA
where :
L is the length of the conductor ( cm )
R is the resis tan ce (ohms)
c is conductivity of the fluid ( mho / cm )
A is the area of the conductor ( cm 2 )
33 Crowl & Louvar, 2011
Energy of Charged Capacitors
The amount of work required to increase the charge on a
capacitor is calculated as:
where :
CV 2 QV J is the work ( Joules )
J C is the capaci tan ce ( farads)
2 2
V is the voltage (volts)
Q is the ch arg e on the capacitor (coulombs )
34
Example
Because of static electricity, a charge may develop at the
charging nozzle. It has been proposed that the flow rate
be increased from 1 gpm to 150 gpm. What
considerations should be given before the change is
implemented?
37
Example Problem – Solution
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Example Problem – Solution
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Example Problem – Solution
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Example Problem – Solution
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Example Problem – Solution
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Example Problem Questions to Ponder
43
Capacitance of a Body
Buildup of charge on one body relative to another
produces a capacitor. Properties are estimated in terms
of flat plates or spherical geometries.
In Parallel flat
QL r 0 A
V C
r 0 A L
Spherical
1 Q
V C 4 r 0 r
4 0 r r
44
Balance of Charges
For systems with several inlet lines and several outlet lines,
such as a vessel. Charge balance is based on currents flowing
in, flowing out, and charge loss from relaxation:
dQ n m
I s i , in I s j , out
Q
dt
m F
dQ n
I s i , in Q
j Q
dt Vc
Case I
The flows, streaming currents, and relaxation time are constant
Q A B e C t
46
Preventing Electrostatic Ignition
Three methods used to prevent charge buildup:
• Reduce charge accumulation and increase relaxation,
generally for liquids; enlarged pipe for hold time = /2 to 2
to increase discharge
• Reduce charge accumulation in powders, solids: include
charge reduction by low-energy discharges; thin, conductive
surfaces
• Control oxidant levels: inerting; control fuels below LFL or
above UFL
47
Relaxation
48
Bonding & Grounding
54