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Comparative Analysis
HELIUM
Quick Review
Animal classes are not like the classes people have at school!
An animal class is made up of animals that are all alike in
important ways. Scientists have grouped animals into classes to
make it easier to study them.
There are many different animal classes and every animal in the
world belongs to one of them. The five most well known classes of
vertebrates (animals with backbones) are mammals, birds, fish,
reptiles, amphibians. They are all part of the phylum chordata -- I
remember "chordata" by thinking of spinal chord.
Mammal Amphibian Reptile Bird Fish
Deer Frog Frog Lizard Parrot Goldfish
Hamster Salamander Crocodile Owl Tuna
Tuna
Elephant Diplocaulus Turtle
Turtle Crane Catfish
Pilandok Caecilian Snake Toucan Mackerel
Lemur Newts Dinosaur Penguin Guppy
Penguin
DIFFERENT BODY SYSTEMS
Despite the more than 200 bones in the head, bluefin tuna is
not the acanthomorph with the most complex skull anatomy.
The skull of the remoras (Echeneidae), with a dorsal fin
transformed in a sucker and extending onto the head, or the
asymmetrical skull of flatfish (pleuronectiformes), or the
flattened skull of a monkfish (Lophius piscatorius, Lophiidae) are
few examples of higly modified skulls. But, because of their size,
the bones of the skull of a bluefin tuna are good tools to learn
to identify bony structures.
The different ostéologic layers, from
the most superficial bones to intern
ones, are here exposed, as they appear
during an osteologic dissection.
Superficial Dermal Skeleton
Appendicular Skeleton
Splanchnocranium
Gill Arches
Neurocranium
Elephant Skeletal System Frog
-The skeletons are large -Frogs don’t have ribs
enough to support its weight -Its pelvis can slide up and
with approximate of 16.5% All possess down its spine which may
of body weight. internal skeleton help it jump.
made of bone -It has skull but no neck.
(backbone or
spinal column).
Turtle Tuna
-The scutes that are -Bony fish
keratinous epidermal -Endoskeleton is entirely
structures that grow above made of bone
the cavapace bones. Penguin -Exoskeleton is made up of
-two piece mandible cycloids (tiny bony plates)
-denser bones to overcome
buoyancy
-larger sternum for
swimming and sliding
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
An animal’s endocrine system controls body
processes through the production, secretion, and
regulation of hormones, which serve as chemical
“messengers” functioning in cellular and organ activity
and, ultimately, maintaining the body’s homeostasis.
The endocrine system plays a role in growth,
metabolism, and sexual development.
ELEPHANT (Mammal)
Musth or must is a periodic condition in bull
(male) elephants, characterized by highly aggressive
behavior and accompanied by a large rise in
reproductive hormones. Testosterone levels in an
elephant in musth can be as much as 60 times
greater than in the same elephant at other times.
However, whether this hormonal surge is the sole
cause of musth, or merely a contributing factor, is
unknown. Scientific investigation of musth is
problematic because even the most placid elephants
become highly violent toward humans and other
elephants during musth
Often, elephants in musth discharge a thick tar-like
secretion called temporin from the temporal ducts on the
sides of the head. Temporin
contains proteins, lipids (notably cholesterol), phenol an
d 4-methyl phenol,
cresols and sesquiterpenes (notably farnesol and its
derivatives). Secretions and urine collected from zoo
elephants have been shown to contain elevated levels of
various highly odorous ketones and aldehydes. The
elephant's aggression may be partially caused by a
reaction to the temporin, which naturally trickles down
into the elephant's mouth. Another contributing factor
may be the accompanying swelling of the temporal
glands; this presses on the elephant's eyes and causes
acute pain comparable to severe root abscess toothache.
Elephants sometimes try to counteract this pain by
digging their tusks into the ground.
Temporin
Secretion
during
Musth
FROG (Amphibian)
. Frogs can live both on land and in freshwater. The
most common species found in India is Rana tigrine.
They do not have constant body temperature. Such
animals are called cold-blooded or poikilotherms.
They have the ability to change color to hide them
from their enemies. The protective coloration is
called Mimicry. They take shelter in deep borrows to
protect them from extreme cold or heat. The
chemical coordination of various organs of the body
is achieved by hormones which are secreted by
the endocrine glands.
The prominent endocrine glands found in the frog are
pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, thymus, pineal body,
pancreatic islets, adrenals and gonads. The skin of a frog is
permeable to oxygen and carbon dioxide, as well as to water.
There are blood vessels near the surface of the skin and
when a frog is underwater, oxygen diffuses directly into the
blood. When not submerged, a frog breathes by a process
known as buccal pumping. Its lungs are similar to those of
humans, but the chest muscles are not involved in
respiration, and no ribs or diaphragm exist to help move air
in and out. Instead, it puffs out its throat and draws air in
through the nostrils, which in many species can then be
closed by valves. When the floor of the mouth is
compressed, air is forced into the lungs. The fully
aquatic Bornean flat-headed frog (Barbourula
kalimantanensis) is the first frog known to lack lungs entirely.
TURTLE (Reptile)
Terrestrial tortoises have short, sturdy feet. Tortoises
are famous for moving slowly, in part because of their
heavy, cumbersome shells, which restrict stride length.
Amphibious turtles normally have limbs similar to those of
tortoises, except that the feet are webbed and often have
long claws. These turtles swim using all four feet in a way
similar to the dog paddle, with the feet on the left and
right side of the body alternately providing thrust. Large
turtles tend to swim less than smaller ones, and the very
big species, such as alligator snapping turtles, hardly swim
at all, preferring to walk along the bottom of the river or
lake. As well as webbed feet, turtles have very long claws,
used to help them clamber onto riverbanks and floating
logs upon which they bask.
Male turtles tend to have particularly
long claws, and these appear to be used
to stimulate the female while mating.
While most turtles have webbed feet,
some, such as the pig-nosed turtle, have
true flippers, with the digits being fused
into paddles and the claws being
relatively small. These species swim in the
same way as sea turtles do.
Sea turtles are almost entirely aquatic and
have flippers instead of feet. Sea turtles fly
through the water, using the up-and-down
motion of the front flippers to generate thrust;
the back feet are not used for propulsion but
may be used as rudders for steering. Compared
with freshwater turtles, sea turtles have very
limited mobility on land, and apart from the
dash from the nest to the sea as hatchlings,
male sea turtles normally never leave the sea.
Females must come back onto land to lay eggs.
They move very slowly and laboriously, dragging
themselves forwards with their flippers.
PENGUIN (Bird)
The supraorbital gland is a type of lateral nasal
gland found in some species of marine birds,
particularly penguins, which removes sodium chloride
from the bloodstream. The gland's function is similar to
that of the kidneys, though it is much more efficient at
removing salt, allowing penguins to survive without
access to fresh water. Contrary to popular belief, the
gland does not directly convert saltwater to freshwater.
The term supraorbital refers to the area just above the
eye socket (which is known as the orbit).
Living in saltwater environments would naturally
pose a large problem for penguins because the
ingestion of saltwater would be detrimental to a
penguin's health. Although penguins do not directly
drink water, it is taken in when they engulf prey. As a
result, saltwater enters their system and must be
effectively excreted. The supraorbital gland has thus
enabled the penguins' survival in such environments
due to its water-filtering capability. The gland is located
just above the eyes and surrounds a capillary bed in the
head. This capillary bed constantly strains out the salt
in the saltwater that a penguin takes in. Since the
byproduct of the gland has roughly five times as much
salt as would normally be found in the animal's fluids,
the supraorbital gland is highly efficient.
The penguin excretes the salt byproduct as a
brine through its bill. Often, the fluid drips
out, and this gives the appearance of a runny
nose. However, the fluid may also be
sneezed out. In the absence of saltwater,
caused by captivity, the supraorbital gland
will lie dormant as it has no other purpose.
Having a dormant supraorbital gland does
not negatively affect the health of a penguin.
Endocrine
System
of Bird
TUNA (Fish)
Elephant Endocrine System Frog
-Endothermic or warm -Endocrine system that helps
blooded frogs with hibernation and
-Undergo musth, a periodic All have same reproduction. Hormones are
condition in bull elephants. general endocrine secreted to maintain
-No sweat glands glands and release homeostasis.
similar hormones
for growth,
Turtle reproduction, etc.
Tuna
-Ectothermic or cold blooded -Pituitary gland occupies the
-Has calcitonin that lowers same central part in the
the levels of calcium and endocrine signalling system
phosphate in the blood and just like mammals.
promotes formation of Penguin
bones. - supraorbital gland is a type
of lateral nasal gland found
in some species of marine
birds.
CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
ELEPHANT (Mammal)
The elephant circulatory system is built to
accommodate the nutritional and oxygen levels that is
required. Despite its large size, the circulatory system of
the elephant is quite unexceptional. In keeping with the
size of the animal, elephant hemoglobin has a higher
oxygen affinity than that of other mammals. The heart of
the African bull can weigh up to 28 kg, a size normal for
such a large animal.
A peculiarity exists with the ventricles of the elephant.
The ventricles are separated at their apex. Also, there are
paired venae cavae instead of the usual single vein. These
peculiarities are found in other penungulates and are
probably primitive.
Due to their enormous size, arteries are
supported by ridges of elastic fibers or
muscles cells. The veins are supported by
having proportionately thicker walls than
other mammals. The blood vessels of the
elephant can achieve lengths of up to 350
cm, which require a high blood pressure in
order to prevent their collapse if they had
thin walls.
FROG (Amphibian)
• . Circulatory system is the system of blood, heart, and
blood vessels.
1. Heart
• · Heart is triangular muscular pumping organs.
• · Heart of frog is situated ventrally to the liver in the
pericardial cavity.
• · Heart is three –chambered.
• · Upper two chambers are called auricle sand lower one
chamber is called ventricle.
• · Its anterior end is broader then posterior end.
• · The broader part anterior is known as auricle.
• · The posterior part is known as ventricle.
• · The ventricle is thick walled than auricles .right auricle
is larger than left auricle.
External structure of heart
• From the ventral view
• · The tubular structure is present on right side of anterior
part of ventricle, which is called truncus arterious gives
two branches called aortic trunks.
• From the dorsal view
• · There is somewhat triangular structure called sinus
venosus. It opens into right auricle. The right precaval,
left precaval and post caval veins open into sinus
venosus.
• Internal structure of heart:
• · Two auricles are separated by a septum called internal
auricular septum.
• · The right auricle bears opening of sinus venosus called
sinu-auricular aperture which is guarded by valves called
• · It allows flow of blood from sinus venous to right auricle and prevents
back flow of blood.
• · Left auricle bears opening of pulmonary vein without valve.
• · Auricles open into ventricles by auriculo-ventricular aperature, which is
guarded by four auriculo –ventricular valves.
• · The flaps of these valves are connected to the wall of ventricles by
chordae tendinae.
• · A ventricle is thick walled and internally give in folding called trabecule.
• · Ventricle opens into truncus arterious.
• · The opening is guarded by four semilunar valves, which prevent
backward flow of blood from truncus arterious to ventricle.
• · A truncus arterious is divided into two parts at the base.
• o conus arteriosus ( plangium)- which consists spiral valves.
• o Bulbous arteriosus ( synangium)- which is again divided into two parts.
• Cavum aorticum and cavum pulmocutanum.
• Each aortic trunk again divides into three vessels: Carotid arch, Systemic
arch, Pulmo -cutanous arch.
TURTLE (Reptile)
The circulatory system is fairly simple. The
system consists of the heart, veins, arteries and
capillaries. Sea turtles unlike humans have a
three chambered heart. The heart consists of the
left auricle, the right auricle and the ventricle.
The ventricle is somewhat separated by a partial
septum which helps to minimize the mixing of
deoxygenated and oxygenated
blood. Deoxygenated blood flows into the right
auricle. The auricle contracts and forces the
deoxygenated blood into the ventricle.
The ventricle forces the blood into the
lungs where carbon dioxide is extracted and
oxygen is added. The blood, which is now
oxygenated then enters the left auricle. The
left auricle then contracts forcing the blood
once again into the ventricle. The ventricle
then sends oxygenated blood is carried
away from the heart via arteries. As the
arteries stretch throughout the sea turtles
body they become narrower until they
become tiny blood vessels named
capillaries.
PENGUIN (Bird)
The cardiovascular system, the system that delivers oxygen and
nutrients to the cells of the penguin body, is the most important
system in the penguin. Without a properly functioning cardio
vascular system, a penguin can no longer think, mate, walk, swim
or live. Therefore, nature has designed a pump and a system of
blood vessels that are well-suited for the biological activities of
penguins. Much like our own, this system is susceptible to
deterioration. The cardiovascular system is a series circuit. Basically,
this means that everything leaving the heartcomes back to the
heart sooner or later. Oxygen enters the blood stream in the lungs,
travels by meansof pulmonary veins to the Left atrium (a small
chamber in the heart), into the left ventricle (a thickerpumping
chamber in the heart), into the various arteries of the penguin and
to the body. When cellsextract nutrients and dump their waste
products, blood travels in veins back to the heart in a
So, what blood leaves the heart returns to the heart in
due time.There are several components to thepenguin's
cardiovascular system. The mostprominent feature is the
heart. The penguinheart, just like yours and mine, is a
muscle.It's a well-designed muscle that contractsand
expands the entire life of the penguin.The speed of the
contractions increase whenthe penguin needs more
oxygen (swimming,mating, fighting, and fleeing predators)
andrelaxes when the penguin needs less oxygen(resting,
standing, sleeping). You can see inthe image on the left a
basic penguin heart.Penguin hearts and mammal hearts
areunique among animal hearts. We all havefour chambers
in our hearts.Basically, this means that oxygenated blood is
always separated from poorly oxygenated(deoxygenated)
blood. (This is considered an evolutionary advancement
over reptiles, amphibians andfish.)
These four chambers are the right and left atria
and the right and left ventricles. The atria
(singular:atrium) collect blood returning from the body
or lungs and pump that blood into the ventricles.
Theventricles have more important jobs; their either
pump the blood throughout the penguin or to the
lungsof the penguin so that it can be oxygenated. Since
the left ventricle pumps blood throughout thepenguin
body, it is much stronger than the right ventricle which
pumps blood to the lungs of the penguinonly.It might
sound strange, but penguin hearts need blood as well,
just like all other organs in the penguin.A penguin's
heart is composed of cardiac muscle and it has its own
blood supply: the cardiac arteries.As in humans, these
can become clogged and be the source of heart attacks
and death in penguins.
A new artery is the systemic artery that arises
from the systemic arch off the heart. It's very much like
our aorta. It runs along the medianaspect of the
penguin and sends off several unpaired and paired
arteries as it runs caudally.The first branch off the
systemic artery is an unpaired artery: the celiac artery.
The derivatives of thisartery will supply much of the
foregut of the penguin: gizzard, liver, pancreas, etc.
There are also 3paired arteries that deliver blood to
each lobe of the each kidney in the penguin. After the
renal arteriesleave the systemic artery, femoral arteries
are found. Femoral arteries supply blood to the legs of
thepenguin. Finally, posterior mesenteric vessels that
supply the hindgut and caudal arteries supplying
thetail branch. When tissues have extracted their
nutrients, the blood will reverse its path in a
similarfashion and return to the heart.
Circulatory
System
of Bird
TUNA (Fish)