COVER

PA G E
Soil, Water & Air

Recommended Text Book: Introduction to Environment Management

by: M.M. Sulphey & M. M. Safeer
B-Tech [HONS] 4 Years Program Associate Professor: Azfar Javaid
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Soils
Soils are rich ecosystems, composed of both living and non-living matter with a multitude of interaction between them. Soils play an
important role in all of our natural ecological cycles—carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, water and nutrient. They also provide benefits
through their contribution in a number of additional processes, called ecosystem services. These services range from waste
decomposition to acting as a water filtration system to degrading environmental contaminants.

The diversity and abundance of life that exists within the soil is greater than in any other ecosystem. A handful of soil can contain
billions of different organisms that play a critical role in soil quality to support plant growth. Although we understand the vital
services that these organisms provide by breaking down organic debris (plants, animals, and other organic materials) and recycling
nutrients, scientists have only begun to study the rich and unique diversity that is a part of the soil ecosystem.

Soil Functions
We depend on soil to perform many functions. Healthy soil gives us clean air and water, bountiful crops and forests, productive
rangeland, diverse wildlife and beautiful landscapes. Six key soil functions are:

1. Food and other biomass production.

2. Environmental Interaction: storage, filtering and transformation.
3. Biological habitat and gene pool.
4. Source of raw materials.
5. Physical and cultural heritage.
6. Platform for man-made structures: buildings, highways.

Nutrient Cycling – Soil stores, moderates the release of nutrients, and cycles nutrients & other elements. During these
biogeochemical processes, parallel to the water cycle, nutrients can be transformed into plant available forms, held in the soil or even
lost to air or water.
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Soils
Water Relations – Soil can regulate the drainage, flow and storage of water and solutes, which includes nitrogen, phosphorus, pesticides and other
nutrients and compounds dissolved in the water. With proper functioning, soil partitions water for groundwater recharge and for use by plants and soil
animals.

When rain or irrigation water falls to earth, some of the water will infiltrate into the soil and some will flow over the surface. If the soil is loose, porous,
and has a stable structure, a drop of water will be likely to infiltrate. If the soil has few openings and unstable structure so that a crust forms and seals
the soil surface, a drop of water will be more likely to run over the surface. Plants are also important in determining the fate of water. Leaves intercept
water so some evaporates before it ever reaches the soil, and leaves and plant residue protect the soil so rain hits more gently. Roots and residue slow
down the flow of water over land so water has more time to soak in.
If the soil becomes saturated, some water will drain down to groundwater. The remainder will be held in the soil
until it evaporates or is drawn into plant roots, eventually transpiring from leaves. At all these stages water is
carrying residue, organic matter, plant nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus, pesticides, and other
dissolved or suspended compounds. Water flowing over the surface may carry residue and nutrients into lakes.
Water draining into groundwater may contain nitrate or pesticides. Where does rainwater go after it falls on your
property? During a downpour, watch where it flows and where it ponds. After the rain, notice how the soil
surface dries more slowly under residue or mulch compared to bare soil

Biodiversity and Habitat – Soil supports the growth of a variety of plants, animals and soil microorganisms, usually by providing a diverse physical,
chemical and biological habitat. We must know what do plants, animals, and microbes need from soil?

Microbes need soil for –

- Food: Most microbes need regular inputs of organic matter (e.g. plant residue) into the soil.
- Space: Larger soil organisms such as nematodes and insects need enough space to move through soil.
- Air: Most soil organisms require air, though some require a lack of oxygen. They live in low-oxygen micro-sites such as within soil aggregates.
Generally, soil biological activity is enhanced by an increase in soil aeration.
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Soils
Plants need soil for -
- Support of the microbiological activity necessary for plant growth.
- Support for, and minimum resistance to, root penetration.
- Intake and retention of water in soil, while maintaining adequate aeration.
- Exchange of soil air with the atmosphere.
- Resistance to erosion.
- Mineral and organic sources of nutrients.
- In addition, farmers need adequate traction for farm implements to grow crops.

Animals and people need soil for-

- Healthy plant growth.
- Availability of nutrients essential for animal health. These are absorbed by plants, but are not necessarily essential for plant health.

All organisms need-

- Low levels of toxic compounds.
- Filtering of water and air.

At a landscape scale, a variety of soil environments are needed to support a variety of plants, animals, and microorganisms.

Diversity of soil and soil organisms

Each animal, plant, and microbe species requires a slightly different habitat. Thus, a wide variety of habitats are required to support the tremendous
biodiversity on earth. At the microbial level, diversity is beneficial for several reasons. Many different organisms are required in the multi-step process
of decomposition and nutrient cycling. A complex set of soil organisms can compete with disease-causing organisms, and prevent a problem-causing
species from becoming dominant. Many types of organisms are involved in creating and maintaining the soil structure that is important to water
dynamics in soil. Many antibiotics and other drugs and compounds used by humans come from soil organisms. Most soil organisms cannot grow outside
of soil, so it is necessary to preserve healthy and diverse soil ecosystems if we want to preserve beneficial microorganisms. Estimated numbers of soil
species include 30,000 bacteria; 1,500,000 fungi; 60,000 algae; 10,000 protozoa; 500,000 nematodes; and 3,000 earthworms (Pankhurst, 1997).
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Soils
Filtering and Buffering
Soil acts as a filter to protect the quality of water, air, and other resources. Toxic compounds or excess nutrients can
be degraded or otherwise made unavailable to plants and animals.

The minerals and microbes in soil are responsible for filtering, buffering, degrading, immobilizing, and detoxifying
organic and inorganic materials, including industrial and municipal by-products and atmospheric deposits. Soil
absorbs contaminants from both water and air. Some of these compounds are degraded by microorganisms in the
soil. Others are held safely in place in the soil, preventing contamination of air and water. When the soil system is
overloaded, such as with the excess application of fertilizer or manure, or when the soil is unstable,
some contaminants will be released back to the air and water through erosion or leaching.

Physical Stability and Support

Soil has the ability to maintain its porous structure to allow passage of air and water, withstand erosive forces, and provide a medium for plant roots.
Soils also provide anchoring support for human structures and protect archeological treasures.

Soil support is necessary to anchor plants and buildings. Both flexible (it can be dug) and stable (it can withstand wind and water erosion), soil also
provides valuable long-term storage options including protecting archeological treasures and land-filling human garbage. The need for structural
support can conflict with other soil uses. For example, soil compaction may be desirable under roads and houses, but can be devastating for the plants
growing nearby.
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Water
Water is the lifeblood of our planet. It is fundamental to the biochemistry of all living organisms. The Earth’s ecosystems are linked and maintained by
water, it drives plant growth and provides a permanent habitat for many species, including some 8,500 species of fish, and a breeding ground or
temporary home for others, such as most of the world’s 4,200 species of amphibians and reptiles described so far.

These ecosystems offer environmental security (McCartney et al., 1999) to humankind by providing goods, such as fish, plants for food and medicines
and timber products, services, such as flood protection and water quality improvement, and biodiversity.

Part of the success of the human species has been our ability to control the hydrological cycle, storing water for drinking, growing food and driving
industrial processes, harnessing its power for generating energy, and reducing vulnerability to natural hazards, such as floods and droughts.

However, this drive to overcome nature is now seen to have disadvantages. It has destroyed much of the Earth’s natural beauty and degraded many of
the vital ecological support systems that keep the planet fit for life. Degradation of the Aral Sea and destruction of the Amazon rainforest are high profile
examples.

The Water Crisis

Whilst water is created and destroyed in biochemical processes such as respiration and photosynthesis, the total amount of water on earth is stable at
around 1.4 billion km3. Of this, about 41,000 km3 circulates through the hydrological cycle, the remaining being stored for long periods in the oceans,
ice caps and aquifers. It only moves from place to place and changes in quality.

The twentieth century has witnessed unprecedented rises in human populations, from 2.8 billion in 1955 to 5.3 billion in 1990 and is expected to reach
between 7.9 and 9.1 billion by 2025 (Engleman and LeRoy, 1993). Consequently, human demands for water, for domestic, industrial and agricultural
purposes, are also increasing rapidly (Gleick, 1993). The amount of water that people use varies, but tends to rise with living standards. For instance, in
the United States of America, each individual typically uses 700 liters per day for domestic tasks (drinking, cooking and washing), whilst in Senegal, the
average use is 29 liters per day. In general, 100 liters per person per day is considered a minimum threshold (Falkenmark and Widstrand, 1992) for
personal use.

Because of the spatial mismatch between water resources and people, it has been observed that, twelve African countries with a total population of
approximately 250 million are suffering severe water stress. A further ten countries will be similarly stressed by the year 2025 containing some 1,100
million people, or two-thirds of Africa’s population, while four (Kenya, Rwanda, Burundi and Malawi) will be facing an extreme water crisis
(Falkenmark, 1989). One can say that water supplies are now running dry, at an alarming rate.
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Water
Causes and Effects of Water Scarcity
- Overuse of Water – Water overuse is a huge issue that a lot of people are dealing with. It may be overused on people, animals, land or any other
number of things. It may also be used for recreational activities without any care about the effects that it may have on the world around them.
- Pollution of Water – Water pollution is a huge program, especially when you’re looking at areas that don’t necessarily have a good sewage system.
Pollution can be anything from oil, to carcasses, to chemicals and to fecal matter. No matter what it is; it makes a lot of issues for the people who
need to use it.
- Conflict – If there is a conflict over an area of land, it maybe difficult to access the water that is located there. In worst case scenarios, people could
end up dying of they try to access the water in these areas (due to violence). This can resulting a variety of other issues, including pollution, which
we discussed in he previous point.
- Distance – There are a number of areas throughout the entire world that deal with water scarcity because they just aren’t close to anywhere that
has water. Areas that are considered to be desert, or areas that are isolated, may not have somewhere that people can get water effectively.
- Drought – A drought is, in short, an area which is not getting enough rainfall to be able to sustain the life that is residing there. Some areas are
perpetual drought, whereas other areas may be dealing with a drought on occasion. Drought are common all over the world, and there is little that
can be done to prevent such things from happening.
- Governmental Access – In some countries, specifically those with dictatorships, the use of water may be strictly controlled by those in power,
causing a scarcity for those who may be located in those areas of the world. These governments use it as a source of control over those that they are
governing, which can be a huge problem.

Eventually, following may happen as a result of water scarcity:

- Lack of access to drinking water.
- Hunger.
- Lack of Education.
- Diseases.
- Sanitation Issues.
- Poverty.
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Air
Ground-level air pollution has serious effects on the natural environment and human health. To
address questions about the effects of social structural forces on environmental impacts, we analyze
cross-national time-series data (1990–2000) to assess influences on the emission of ground-level air
pollutants: sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide, and non-methane volatile organic
compounds.

In a study it is found that, the population growth rate in less developed nations is over four times that
in developed nations. This finding suggests that developed nations will contribute more to air
pollution in the coming years.

Urban air pollution is set to become the biggest environmental cause of premature death in coming decades, overtaking even such mass killers as
poor sanitation and a lack of clean drinking water, according to a new report. It is believed that both developed and developing countries will be hit
and by 2050, there could be 3.6 million premature deaths a year from exposure to particulate matter, most of them in China an India.

Causes and Effects of Air Pollution

We cause air pollution directly through our use of electricity, fuels, and transportation.

We also cause air pollution indirectly, when we buy goods and services that use energy in
their production and delivery. Most of this air pollution we cause results from the burning
of fossil fuels, such as coal, oil, natural gas, and gasoline to produce electricity and power
our vehicles.

Carbon dioxide (CO2) is a good indicator of how much fossil fuel is burned and how much of
other pollutants are emitted as a result.
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Air
The following table summarizes some sources and effects of these air pollutants.

Pollutant Anthropogenic Sources Health Effects Environmental Effects

Secondary pollutant formed by chemical reaction of
Ozone (O3)
VOCs and NOx in the presence of sunlight.
Burning of gasoline, natural gas, coal, oil.
Nitrogen Oxides (NOx)
(Cars are a major source of NOx.)
Carbon Monoxide (CO) Burning of gasoline, natural gas, coal, oil.
Volatile Organic Fuel combustion, solvents, paint.
Compounds (VOCs) (Cars are a major source of VOCs.)
Emitted as particles or formed through chemical
reactions; burning of wood, diesel, and other fuels; Eye, nose, and throat irritation; lung damage;
Particulate Matter
industrial processes; agriculture (plowing, field
burning); unpaved roads.
Burning of coal and oil, especially high-sulfur coal;
Sulfur Dioxide (SO2) industrial processes (paper manufacturing, metal
smelting).
Combustion of fossil fuels and leaded gasoline;
Lead paint; smelters (metal refineries); battery
manufacturing.
Fossil fuel combustion, waste disposal, industrial
Mercury processes (incineration, smelting, chlor-alkali
plants), mining.
Breathing problems, reduced lung function, asthma, Damages crops, forests, and other vegetation;
irritates eyes, stuffy nose, reduces resistance to damages rubber, fabric, and other materials; smog
colds and infections, premature aging of lung tissue. reduces visibility.
Ozone (smog) effects; precursor of acid rain which
damages trees, lakes, and soil; aerosols can reduce
Lung damage, respiratory illnesses, ozone (smog)
visibility.
effects.
Acid rain also causes buildings, statues, and
monuments to deteriorate.
Reduces ability of blood to bring oxygen to body
cells and tissues.
Ozone (smog) effects, cancer, and other serious
Ozone (smog) effects, vegetation damage.
health problems.
Source of haze which reduces visibility.
Ashes, smoke, soot, and dust can dirty and discolor
bronchitis; cancer; early death. structures and property, including clothes and
furniture.
Precursor of acid rain, which can damage trees,
Respiratory illness, breathing problems, may cause lakes, and soil; aerosols can reduce visibility.
permanent damage to lungs. Acid rain also causes buildings, statues, and
monuments to deteriorate.
Brain and nervous system damage (esp. children),
digestive and other problems. Some lead-containing Harm to wildlife and livestock.
chemicals cause cancer in animals.
Liver, kidney, and brain damage; neurological and
Accumulates in food chain.
developmental damage.
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End of Lecture 03….. Chapter 03 Completed