The development of organic farming:

Farmers’ motivations, and formal

regulations

Lecture at NMBU September 8, 2014

PJH300 - Sustainable Production Systems Farming
Forming
Future

Anne-Kristin Løes
Bioforsk Organic Food and Farming
Tingvoll
Bioforsk – Bioforsk Arctic
Agriculture and

Norwegian Land Use, Holt,

Tromsø
Svanhovd
Institute for
Agricultural and Bodø

Environmental
Research Tjøtta Totally
about 450
employees

Bioforsk Organic
Food and Farming,
Bioforsk Grassland and Landscape,
Tingvoll
Kvithamar

Løken
Fureneset

Bioforsk Arable Crops,

Ullensvang Apelsvoll

Bioforsk Soil and Environment

Bioforsk Plant Health and Plant Protection
Bioforsk Administration
Landvik
Bioforsk Horticulture and
Urban Greening,
Særheim
The development of organic farming:
Farmers’ motivations
and formal regulations
Contents:
• What is organic farming (OF)?
• The early history of OF
• IFOAM-global network
• Definitions, principles and standards
• Looking into IFOAM detailed standards
(Excel file)
• BREAK
• Growth and development of OF, globally and in
Norway
• Organic farmers’ motivations and visions
• International and national regulations framing OF
• Outlook
What is organic farming?

The simple explanation:

Organic agriculture = Refraining from mineral fertilizers
and synthetic pesticides
 Cycles versus linearity

A more conceptual one:

•Thinking like industry (input makes output),
maximizing profit, controlling nature
versus
•Thinking like nature (cycles of energy,
nutrients and organic matter), optimizing the
system to create a surplus, cooperate with
nature
 A really conceptual one:
Organic agriculture is a practice where all parts of the production
are unified as a whole, which is larger than the sum of the parts. It is
environmentally friendly, fair, and socially sustainable.

- A farm
individuality?
Farm individuality, farm design
• Using the resources on the farm to fulfill highly different aims
• Study the farms history and biography, link with current
resources and frame conditions to plan the future

Simplify farm Specialize in a

management for a production, posibly
convenient life for including processing
a family and selling food

Cultivate and
Maximize output of establish biodiversity
food for humans habitats

Self-sufficiency in Use the farm as an

fodder and fertiliser, arena for social work
balanced system
The farm as a living organism
• Crop rotation
• Balanced animal husbandry
• Green manures, biological N fixation
• Composting organic materials
• Diverse productions supporting each other
• Maximum of self-sufficiency, still producing a surplus for sale
• Protect and enrich the natural environment

= organs of the living organism

How did it become like this?
• 1885-86: Crucial soil biology discoveries; mycorrhiza, rhizobium bacteria,
biological N-fixation. Agrological and soil microbiology developed as
separate disciplines. Rhizosphere (1904), humus of large importance.
• 1842: Crucial chemistry discoveries; Liebig - plants nurture themselves
from mineral nutrients, and ONLY from mineral(ised) nutrients. Liebig
spoke negatively about soil organic material (humus).
• A continued conflict between soil biology and soil chemistry has formed
the ground for the establishement of organic farming methods.
• Poison (organophosphates), constructed as warfare (1st WW 1914-1918)
useful as insecticide; gunpowder (ammonium nitrate) useful as N
fertiliser
• Technological innovations contributed to unemploydness
• Low yield levels in Germany 1920-30 due to neglecting of soil humus?
Conflicting views
• Natural agriculture as a reaction towards specialization and
mechanisation
 Rudolf Steiner, German-
speaking Europe (1861-

Early history of organic agriculture 1925), founder of

anthroposophy, inspired
biodynamic farming by
«The agricultural
• About 1920-30: Organic pioneers were caring for the course», 1924
soil, troubled by soil erosion, decline of crop varieties,
rural poverty, the introduction of mineral fertilisers and
the increasing mechanization and specialization
• «The health of a nation built on agriculture is
dependent on the long-term vitality of its soil»
• The farmer is nature’s partner
• Agriculture is creative, rather than mechanistic
• Howard: Law of return

Eve Balfour (1898-
1990, founder of Soil
Association(UK), book
«The living soil» 1943,
reprinted 9 times
Albert Howard, UK
(1873-1947), agricultural
advisor in India, inspired
by recycling nutrients,
«the father of modern
composting», book «The
waste products of
agriculture», 1931
Bio, eco, biodynamic, organic…

• Organic agriculture developed, and

develops differently in different
countries and parts of the world

• Different associations and

categories of organic merged into
«organic» (in Norwegian: økologisk)
during the late 70-ties

• The diversity of OF practices is still

reflected in labels, certification
bodies and associations
Organic = Certified- and much more

• Fulfilling conditions in EU regulations = minimum

• Several certification bodies have stricter

regulations

• In several countries, producers «only» fulfilling

EU regulations are seen as «second class»
organic farmers

• Regulations grow very fast in volume! Simplify

basic requirements, and earn «Michelin-stars»
for special fields of interest?
Important and impressive
international network: IFOAM
International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements:
• “It all started in 1972 when the President of the French farmers'
organization, Nature et Progrès conceived of a worldwide appeal to
come together to ensure a future for organic agriculture”
• “By the 80s, IFOAM had leaders in the US, attracted involvement from
African agents of organic agriculture, and launched a unique and fruitful
relationship with the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United
Nations (FAO)”

• “..producing standards which provided a model for numerous major

laws and voluntary standards, (Codex Alimentarius, EU, FAO)”

• By 2014: 732 affiliates (members, associates and supporters) in 114

countries.

• Source: www.ifoam.org
IFOAM’s definition of Organic Agriculture

Organic agriculture is a production

system that sustains the health of soils,
ecosystems and people. It relies on
ecological processes, biodiversity and
cycles adapted to local conditions,
rather than the use of inputs with
adverse effects. Organic agriculture
combines tradition, innovation and
science to benefit the shared
environment and promote fair
relationships and a good quality of life
for all involved (ratified in 2008).
IFOAM’s four basic principles
Organic agriculture is based on:

• The principle of health: OA should sustain and enhance the health of

soil, plant, animal, human and planet as one and indivisible

• The principle of ecology: OA should be based on living ecological

systems and cycles, work with them, emulate them and help sustain them

• The principle of fairness: OA should build on relationships that ensure

fairness with regard to the common environment and life opportunities

• The principle of care: OA should be managed in a precautionary and

responsible manner to protect the health and well-being of current and future
generations and the environment
“..one of IFOAM's founders, Eve Balfour,
said that the characteristics of truly
sustainable agriculture can be
summed up with the word,
"permanence“
Principle of health
• The health of individuals and communities
cannot be separated from the health of
ecosystems. Healthy soils produce healthy
crops that foster the health of animals and
people.
• Health is not simply the absence of illness,
but the maintenance of physical, mental,
social and ecological wellbeing.
• Immunity, resilience and regeneration are
key characteristics of health.
• Organic agriculture is intended to produce
high quality, nutritious food that
contributes to preventive health care and
wellbeing. In view of this it should avoid
the use of fertilizers, pesticides, animal
drugs and food additives that may have
adverse health effects.
Principle of ecology

• The production is to be based on ecological processes, and recycling.

Nourishment and wellbeing are achieved through the ecology of the
specific production environment, e.g. for crops, the living soil; for
animals, the farm ecosystem.
• Organic management must be adapted to local conditions, ecology, culture
and scale. Inputs should be reduced by reuse, recycling and efficient
management of materials and energy in order to maintain and improve
environmental quality and conserve resources.
• Organic agriculture should attain ecological balance through the design of
farming systems, establishment of habitats and maintenance of genetic
and agricultural diversity.
• Those who produce, process, trade, or consume organic products should
protect and benefit the common environment including landscapes,
climate, habitats, biodiversity, air and water.
Principle of fairness

• Organic agriculture should build on relationships that ensure fairness with

regard to the common environment and life opportunities.
• Fairness is characterized by equity, respect, justice and stewardship of the
shared world, both among people and in their relations to other living
beings.
• Organic agriculture should provide everyone involved with a good quality
of life, and contribute to food sovereignty and reduction of poverty.
• Organic agriculture aims to produce a sufficient supply of good quality
food and other products.
• Animals should be provided with the conditions and opportunities of life
that accord with their physiology, natural behavior and wellbeing.
• Natural resources should be managed in a way that is socially and
ecologically just and should be held in trust for future generations.
• Fairness requires systems of production, distribution and trade that are
open and equitable and account for real environmental and social costs.
Principle of care

• OA should be managed in a precautionary and responsible manner to

protect the health and wellbeing of current and future generations and the
environment.
• Practitioners can enhance efficiency and increase productivity, but this
should not be at the risk of jeopardizing health and wellbeing.
• New technologies need to be assessed and existing methods reviewed.
• Given the incomplete understanding of ecosystems and agriculture, care
must be taken.
• Science is necessary to ensure that OA is healthy, safe and ecologically
sound. However, scientific knowledge alone is not sufficient. Practical
experience, accumulated wisdom and traditional and indigenous
knowledge offer valid solutions, tested by time.
• OA should reject unpredictable technologies, such as genetic engineering.
• Decisions should reflect the values and needs of all who might be
Principles and practices
Food and fibre
Very few production
Less animal Animal
pesticides
drugs welfare

Very few food Environment and

and feed resource
additives conservation
HEALTH FAIRNESS
ECOLOGY CARE Optimize, not
maximize

No GMOs
Composts and
green manure
Crop Participatory
rotation research

Hedges, ponds, flower

strips.. For biodiversity
Certification and standards

Available at:
http://www.ifoam.org/sites/default/files/ifoam_norms_version_july_2014.pdf
Certification and standards
• IFOAM Family of standards for organic agriculture

• Includes the EU Organic Regulation, Krav Standards, Sweden and

many more (> 50)

• Is a primary framework for guaranteeing that an organic standard

adequately describes globally-recognized expectations for what
organic producers should do, and what their products should
represent

• The Best Practice Guidelines are not seen as the ultimate goal, but as
a basis for further efforts towards sustainable practices

• Important legal framework: Common Objectives and Requirements of

Organic Standards (COROS)

• Excel file of COROS to be shown here

Time for a break!
The development of organic farming:
Farmers’ motivations
and formal regulations
Contents:
• What is organic farming (OF)?
• The early history of OF
• IFOAM-global network
• Definitions, principles and standards
• Looking into IFOAM detailed standards
(Excel file)
• BREAK
• Growth and development of OF, globally and in
Norway
• Organic farmers’ motivations and visions
• International and national regulations framing OF
• Outlook
From niche to volume:
0  5 % of European farmland
• Since 1985, a rapid growth
in organic production and
consumption, linked to
public support, research
and increased acceptance
in the scientific
community

• Organic agriculture is still

not fully accepted, and
still actively counteracted
and questioned especially
for food security, soil
fertility and partly for
animal welfare
Source: http://orgprints.org/19310/1/world-of-organic-agriculture-2011.pdf
Development of organic food and farming

Political Subsi- Public

Pioneer NGOs support dies goal
practise (%)
R&D Exten-
sion Market
develop-
Edu- ment
cation

Counter- Counter- Counter-

acting
acting acting

Mahatma Gandhi: First they ignore you, then they Time

laugh at you, then they fight you, then you win
What is organic farming, in Norway?

Originally inspired by biodynamic

philosophy
The general picture: Rapidly
decreasing number of farms in Norway
Antall driftsenheter i norsk
jordbruk > 5 daa (i 1000)

160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
-201960 1980 2000 2020 2040

Number of farms < 50 000: 46 624 per January 2010 (SSB).

Annual decrease 2-3000 farms
«Modern» organic
farming
• 7500 laying hens
• 90 dairy cows

ØL 1-2007: Rune Sørli foran de to kraftfôrsiloene. Den ene

Moss Avis, July 2007: Per Boe Guren and Stig
Gammelrød cheers by a glass of fresh organic
milk by the opening of their new loose housing
dairy cow building.
er fylt med eget korn og den andre med økologisk
kraftfôr. På vei inni hønsehuset blandes fôret fra begge
siloene. Hønenes “vinterhage” med tak og
duk på langsiden er bygd i forlengelse av hønsehuset.
FOTO: Hans Gaffke.
 Photo by Kjell Kopperud, Leiekjøring AS
Photo by KSL Matmerk 2009
Nationen (daily newspaper) 11.07.2007:
Storbøndene dominerer økolandbruket
Det er slutt på tida då økologiske bønder dreiv små gardsbruk. Nå har økobøndene fleire
kyr og større mjølkekvote enn vanlege gardsbruk.

(Large farmers dominate organic agriculture. Organic farmers have now more dairy
cows and lagrer milk quotas than ordinary farmers).
Development phases

• Pioneer phase: very few, very dedicated farmers,

often aiming at «back to the land», self-sufficiency
• Spreading ideas to consumers, students
• Establishing organisations
• Conducting research, advisory service
• Certification, political support, public goals
• Growth, conventionalisation
• Scepticism; ownership of the term «sustainability»
• Further growth must come from the roots (principles)
Development of organic food and farming (OFF)
in Norway 1932-2011, timeline
1924 The Agriculture Course in Koberwitz, Poland. Rudolf Steiner.
1931 Bio-dynamic management established at N. Sletner, Østfold
1950 Bio-dynamic Association established in Oslo , journal “Herba”
1971 NGO established in Bergen: “Alternativ jordbruk” (Alternative? Agriculture!). “Jordsøkjarsambandet” 1977, Norsk økologisk landbrukslag (NØLL) 1984.
Originally “Back to the earth”, gradually more and more the largest organic movement in Norway. Journal “Jordvett” 1982, later (since 2000?) “Ren mat”
1977 Research initiated by UMB (NLH) students, MSc theses
1980 1st organic extension service, MFBJ established, in NW Norway. Approved by NLR (LFR) 1984. Journal “Hummelposten”, later “Økologisk landbruk”
1981 RCN (Research Council of Norway) appointed a committee to describe status, research needs and future potential for OFF in Norway
1985 1st research project in OFF funded by RCN (animal manure management, Dr. Sissel Hansen)
1985 UMB started education in organic farming (OF) methods
1985 More organic extension service: FABIO (Telemark, Buskerud, Vestfold) and FØKO (indre Østlandet – Hedmark++) established
1986 Certification body, Debio established, Bjørkelangen
1987 NORSØK (Norwegian Centre for Ecological Agriculture) established in Tingvoll
1988 “30 farm project”, large project at NORSØK initiated by the Agricultural Agreement (AA) Research Fund; Whole farm case studies, 1988-1997
1988 Education in OF established at Sogn vocational school, Aurland
1990 Economic support for conversion and organic production introduced by the Ministry of Agriculture and Food (MAF)
1990 Organic extension service available in the whole country, support by the AA
1992 Specific OFF research programme launched by RCN
1994 Organic production officially approved as a part of the EEA-agreement (European Economic Area)
1995 Certified organic milk for sale (Dalsgården), premium price introduced 0,60 kr/litre for milk sold as organic
1997 NORSØK approved as public research institute and national centre of competence
1998 Professorship in agro-ecology including OF established at UMB, organic education established at HIH (Blæstad)
1999 Official goal of 10% organically managed farmland within 2010 declared by MAF
2000 1st Action Plan for Organic Farming launched by Norwegian Agricultural Authority (SLF)
2000 NØLL, the Norwegian herb grower association and the (organic) Producers’ union formed Oikos, “Organic Norway”
2003 SLF action plan revised, more emphasis on market development
2005 Red-green government declared the double 15% aim: 15% organic food production and consumption within 2015
2005 TINE put up a goal of 4% organic milk sales within 2010; current aim: 6% in 2015
2006 Bioforsk established
2008 Ministry of local government and regional development + MAF launched the project “Økoløft”, 52 municipalities funding to be organic frontrunners
2009 Date for double 15% goal extended to 2020
2009 Most recent OFF action plan released by MAF: https://www.slf.dep.no/no/miljo-og-okologisk/okologisk-landbruk/handlingsplaner/publikasjoner.
2010 Frontrunner counties appointed: Sogn & Fj.+ Hordaland (fruit), Akershus+Østfold (public procurement), N-S.Trøndelag (dairy),
Buskerud (cereals), Vestfold (vegetables)
2010 COOP challenges TINE by selling organic milk as a separate brand, “Änglagård”; Norwegian defence aims at 15% organic in 2012
2011 DIFI clarifies: Organic food = environmental consideration, public procurement should prefer organic food
2012 Retailer KIWI launches large campaign to support organic purchase, cutting costs equal to the VAT (value added tax, 15 % in Norway on food)
Organic production in Norway,
2000-2013

150-200 farmers deregister from certified organic

production each year; 93 In and 231 Out in 2013
Organic production in Norway:
Dairy cows and sheep

Organic consumption in Norway:

Milk, eggs, imported vegetables and
food with a long shelf-life (pasta etc.)
Decreased production diversity over time

Share of the organic farmland used for different crops, %

Crop 2003 2013 Daa, 2013

Grass, fodder 65 80 415.192

crops 1-2% of
Norwegian
Cereals 19 15 8.934 consumption is
organic by
Green manure 5 2 76.583 2014.
Challenge: We
Potato 3 0.2 1.169 import a lot of
our organic
consumption!
Vegetables 1 0.4 1.910

Fruit and 1 0.5 2.471

berrries
Source: http://srv3.zetta.no/www-debio-
no/_upl/statistikkhefte_2013.pdf
Organic farmers’ motivations and
visions

• Vartdal, 1993: Growth

of organic farming in
Norway follows a
classical pattern of
innovation:
• Innovator, early
adopter, early
majority, late majority
and late-comer,
Rogers 1983)
Three categories of eco-
farmers
• Local vs global
orientation
• Globally oriented:
Antroposopher
(bio-dynamic) =
innovators and
Ecosopher
(«green 70-ies»)=
early adopter
• Locally oriented:
Reformist = early
majority
Farmers’ motives for conversion:
Changing with time
Early conv. Convert. Sign.
Motive 1995 or 2000 to
before 2002

Food quality 62.2 41.7 **

Soil fertility, less pollution problems 51.1 27.1 **
Ideology, philosophy 40.0 25.0
Professional challenges 33.3 45.8
Health risks (pesticides etc.) 24.4 33.3
Animal welfare 22.2 33.3
Profitability 11.1 37.5 ***
Natural conditions (soil, climate, etc.) 8.9 10.4
Organic farming payments 6.7 35.4 ***
Income stability 2.2 2.1

Percentage of farmers ranking the motive as one of the three most important motives
Source: Flaten et al., «Risk and risk management in organic
farming”, project 2002-05, NILF-Bioforsk.
http://orgprints.org/6124/
Farmers’ reasons for opting out

• Certification and control is too bureaucratic (and expensive)

• Organic standards: Complicated, irrational, change frequently
• Organic standards become stricter with time
• Animal welfare is cost-demanding
• Agricultural policy is risky (not predictable)
• Organic financial support is too low
• Plant production has problems with weeds and nutrient supply
• Difficulties to obtain 100% organic feed
• Hard to sell and achieve premium price for vegetables
• High employment and salaries increase off-farm employment

Source: Løes et al., «Reasons for opting out of certified

organic production in Norway”, project 2007-08, NILF-
Bioforsk. http://orgprints.org/10629/
Organic agriculture… holistic, and
realistic Public
support
Increasing
attention More
stakeholders
involved

Food prices dumped

Wages increased
Debate about Technology driven
sustainability
EFFEKTIVISERING
STRUKTUR-
RASJONALISERING

Demand for
control and Speculation, utilising
certification support outside of
intentions, even fraud
How international and national
regulations try to frame (certified)
organic agriculture
• EU regulations: 2092/91, 834/2007, 889/2008
• Norway defined organic agriculture by law as a part of the European
Economic Area (EØS-avtalen, EEA) in 1994
• Since 1994, EU regulations for organic agriculture have been
mandatory in Norway, with some national adaptations
• The responsible authority for organic production in Norway is the
Norwegian Food Safety Authority (NFSA; Mattilsynet)
• The private certification body, Debio (Demeter-Biologisk
merkeforvaltning) certifies organic production, processing and trade
on behalf of NFSA
• EU label mandatory from July 2010 (889/08), still not implemented in
Norway!
More about labels/logos:
The EU organic logo and those of EU Member States are used to supplement the
labelling and increase the visibility of organic food and drink for consumers.

The logo ensures that:

 95% of the product's ingredients of agricultural origin have been organically
produced;
 the product complies with the rules of the official inspection scheme;
 the product has come directly from the producer or preparer in a sealed package;
 the product bears the name of the producer, the preparer or vendor and the name
or code of the inspection body.

The placement of the EU logo is mandatory from 1 July 2010 for pre-packaged food.
It remains voluntary for imported products after this date. From 1 July 2010, an
indication of the place where the agricultural raw materials were farmed should
accompany the logo as follows: 'EU Agriculture', 'non-EU Agriculture' or 'EU/non-EU
Agriculture'. If all raw materials have been farmed in only one country, the name of
this specific country, in or outside the EU, can be indicated instead.

If operators wish to sell their products in another EU Member State than their own,
they may place an additional national or private logo that will be recognised by the
consumers of this particular country. However, the EU organic logo should in time be
recognised by all European consumers.
Developing organic regulations –
the EU commission «goes organic»
• 2011:
• Current regulations state that >50 % of the feed for
ruminants shall be produced on the farm. No similar
regulation is found for monogastric animals.
• The commission has launched a proposal to increase the
demand for self-sufficiency to 70-80 % for ruminants, and
40-50 % for pigs and poultry.

• 2012 (hearing in Norway before implementation):

• Demand for feed self-sufficiency increased from 60 to 70
% for ruminants
• Demand for feed self-sufficiency increased from 0 to 20 %
for pigs and poultry
• Feed should come from own farm, or be produced by
cooperating farmers in the same region
• Demand for organic livestock of chicken postponed from
2012 to 2015 due to lack of detailed regulations
• Due to lack of organic protein feed, up to 5 % conventional
protein feed may be used for pigs and poultry until 2015
Revision of CAP Greening of CAP (2014-2020)
• Concensus about making CAP greener and more
sustainable

• In general terms the revision is between pillar I

(direct aids to farmers and market measures)
and pillar II (rural development measures), and
between interests of old and new member states

• The organic specter intends to include High

Nature Value Farming
Trends to consider for organic
farming in 2014
• Organic market increases
- But the proportion of Norwegian products is decreasing!
- Still lot of scepticism among many large food actors
- Increasing imports of organic food that could have been produced in Norway threatens Norwegian
agriculture in general
• Local products highly popular
- Local sells much better than organic.. Why bother about certification?
• A significant amount of farmers conduct «close to», but not certified
organic
-When farming is a part-time business, the farmers has no energy to comply 100% with complicated
regulations
• Most farmers wanting to stay in business specialize and increase the
volume of production
– Diverse organic production has a hard time
• Rapid decline in milk production in general
-(When) Will organic farmers establish their own dairy company?
- Can organic milk be an instrument to maintain Norwegian agriculture?
- When will TINE accept more organic producers of dairy cow milk, and pay premium price for
organic goat milk?
What is required to achieve
the double15 % goal?
• Organic needs to be recognised as a part of the solution to
important challenges (climate change, feeding the world,
biodiversity, soil and water conservation, rural development….)
• Consumers should accept that buying organic is a measure to
support sustainable development
• More information about negative effects of pesticides and other
conventional inputs may be required
• People involved in food processsing and distribution should realise
the importance of selling organic
• Politicians should clarify WHY they established the double 15 %
goal. More focus on environmental benefits, positive health
effects and animal welfare
• Farmers should acknowledge the value of the Ø label, well known
and trusted by Norwegian consumers. Use it actively!
Basically, it is all a question
about values

• There is a fight about the term sustainability

• Sustainability is something everyone wants
• Sustainability is a normative word: Related to values, attitudes
• We have to reflect about our values and attitudes, and be open
and honest about our goals and visions
• There is no such thing as an «objective» researcher
• Research has to be reliable; which is not the same as
«objective»
• Working to promote organic food and farming does not mean
that your research is not as reliable as research made by
people claiming a «neutral» position
Open archive for organic research: www.orgprints.org
Welcome to contact
Bioforsk Organic Food and Farming
• Information during your studies
• Place to visit
• Bachelor or Master thesis?
• Your future working place?