Out response, Poles, and Zeros

 The output response of a system is the sum of two

responses: the forced response (steady-state response)
and the natural response (zero input response)
 The poles of a transfer function are (1) the values of the
Laplace transform variable, s , that cause the transfer
function to become infinite, or (2) any roots of the
denominator of the transfer function that are common to
roots of the numerator.
 The zeros of a transfer function are (1) the values of the
Laplace transform variable, s , that cause the transfer
function to become zero, or (2) any roots of the
numerator of the transfer function that are common to
roots of the denominator.
 Figure 4.1
a. System showing
input and output;
b. pole-zero plot
of the system;
c. evolution of
a system response.
1. A pole of the input function generates the
form of the forced response.
2. A pole of the transfer function generates
the form of the natural response.
3. A pole on the real axis generates an
exponential response.
4. The zeros and poles generate the
amplitudes for both the forced and
natural responses.
 1
R(s) 
s s3 C (s )
( s  2)( s  4)( s  5)

k1 k2 k3 k4
C ( s)    
s s2 s4 s5

Natural response

Forced response

c(t )  k1  k 2 e 2t  k3e 4t  k 4 e 5t

First-Order Systems

Figure 4.4
a. First-order system
b. pole plot

Figure 4.5
First-order system
response to a unit step
 a
C ( s)  R( s)G ( s) 
s( s  a)

c(t )  c f (t )  cn (t )  1  eat
 at
 The time constant can be described as the time for e
to decay to 37% of its initial value. Alternately, the time
is the time it takes for the step response to rise to of its
final value.
e at  e1  0.37
t 1
a

x(t ) t  1  1  e  at  1  0.37  0.63

a t 1
a

 The reciprocal of the time constant has the units

(1/seconds), or frequency. Thus, we call the parameter a
the exponential frequency.
 Rise time: Rise time is defined as the time for the
waveform to go from 0.1 to 0.9 of its final value.
 Settling time: Settling time is defined as the time for the
response to reach, and stay within, 2% (or 5%) of its final
value.
Second-Order Systems

Figure 4.7
Second-order
systems, pole plots,
and step responses
 1. Overdamped response:
Poles: Two real at   1 ,   2
Natural response: Two exponentials with time constants
equal to the reciprocal of the pole location
c(t )  k1e 1t  k2e  2t
 2. Underdamped responses:
Poles: Two complex at   d  jd
Natural response: Damped sinusoid with and
exponential envelope whose time constant is equal to
the reciprocal of the pole’s real part. The radian
frequency of the sinusoid, the damped frequency of
oscillation, is equal to the imaginary part of the poles
c(t )  Ae d t cos(d t   )
 3. Undamped response:
Poles: Two imaginary at  j1
Natural response: Undamped sinusoid with radian
frequency equal to the imaginary part of the poles
c(t )  A cos(1t   )
 4. Critically damped responses:
Poles: Two real at   1
Natural response: One term is an exponential whose
time constant is equal to the reciprocal of the pole
location. Another term is the product of time and an
exponential with time constant equal to the reciprocal of
the pole location
c(t )  k1e 1t  k2te1t
 Figure 4.10
Step responses for second-order
system damping cases
 Figure 4.8
Second-order step response components
generated by complex poles
 Natural Frequency: The natural frequency of a second-order
system is the frequency of oscillation of the system without
damping.
 Damping Ratio: The damping ratio is defined as the ratio of
exponential decay frequency to natural frequency.
b
Consider the general system: G( s) 
s 2  as  b
Without damping,
b
G( s)   n  b
s2  b

a 4b  a 2 a 4b  a 2
s1    j , s2    j
2 2 2 2

Exponential decay frequency |  | a / 2

   
Natural frequency ( rad / sec)  n b

n 2
 a  2 n  G( s )  2
s  2 n s   n
2
 Figure 4.11
Second-order response as a
function of damping ratio
 Underdamped Second-Order Systems
Step response
n 2 K1 K 2 ( s   n )  K 3 n 1  
2
C ( s)   
s( s  2 n s   n ) ( s   n ) 2   n (1   2 )
2 2 2
s

 1  ( s   n )  n 1  2
1 1 2
 
( s   n ) 2   n (1   2 )
2
s

Taking the inverse Laplace transform

 
c( t )  1  e  n t  cos 1   2 t   2 
sin  n 1   t
 n
1 2 
 
1
1
1
2

e  n t cos  n 1   2 t   
where   
  tan  1 
 1 2 
 
 Figure 4.13
Second-order underdamped
responses for damping ratio values
 Peak time: The time required to reach the first, or maximum, peak.
 Percent overshoot: The amount that the waveform overshoots the
steady-state, or final, value at the peak time, expressed as a
percentage of the steady-state value.
 Settling time: The time required for the transient’s damped
oscillations to reach and stay within  2% (or  5% ) of the steady-
state value.
 Rise time: The time required for the waveform to go from 0.1 of the
final value to 0.9 of the final value.

Evaluation of peak time: n

n 1   2
n 2 1 2
L[c(t )]  sC ( s)  2 2 
s  2 n s   n ( s   n ) 2   n (1   2 )
2

n
c(t )  e  n t sin  n 1   2 t
1 2
Setting the derivative equal to zero yields
n 
 n 1   2 t  n or t  t
Peak time: p 
n 1   2 n 1   2
 Figure 4.14
Second-order underdamped
response specifications
 cmax  c final
Evaluation of percent overshoot ( %OS   100):
c final

cmax  c(t p )  1  e ( / 1 2 )

 %OS  e ( / 1 2 )
 100

Evaluation of settling time:

The settling time is the time it takes for the amplitude of the decaying
sinusoid to reach o.o2, or
1  ln( 0.02 1   2
e  n t  0.02  ts  
4
1 2
 n  n

 
tp   ts 
4

4
n 1   2 d  
n d
,
where d is the imaginary part of the pole and is called the damped
frequency of oscillation, and  d is the magnitude of the real part of the
pole and is the exponential damping frequency.
 n 2 n 2
G( s)  2 
s  2n s  n ( s  n  jn 1   2 )( s  n  jn 1   2 )
2

Figure 4.17
Pole plot for an underdamped
second-order system
 Figure 4.18
Lines of constant peak time,Tp , settling
time,Ts , and percent overshoot, %OS
Note: Ts2 < Ts1 ;Tp2 < Tp1; %OS1 <%OS2
 Figure 4.19
Step responses of
second-order
underdamped systems
as poles move:
a. with constant
real part;
b. with constant
imaginary part;
c. with constant
damping ratio
Find peak time, percent overshoot, and settling time from
pole location.

  d  jd  3  j 7  n  jn 1   2

  4 4
tp   ( / 1 2 ) ts  
n 1   2 d , %OS  e 100 ,  n d
Design: Given the rotational mechanical system, find J and D to yield
20% overshoot and a settling time of 2 seconds for a step input of
torque T(t).

Figure 4.21
Rotational mechanical system
Under certain conditions, a system with more than two poles or with zeros
can be approximated as a second-order system tat has just two complex
dominant poles. Once we justify this approximation, the formulae for percent
overshoot, settling time, and peak time can be applied to these higher-order
systems using the location of the dominant poles.
A B( s  n )  Cd D
C ( s)   
s ( s  n )  d
2 2
s  r

Remark:
If the real pole is five times
farther to the left than the
dominant poles, we assume
that the system is
represented by its dominant
second-order pair of poles.

Figure 4.23
Component responses of a three-pole system:
a. pole plot;
b. component responses: nondominant pole is near dominant second-order pair (Case I),
far from the pair (Case II), and at infinity (Case III)
System response with zeros
sa A B (b  a) /( b  c) (c  a) /( c  b)
T ( s)     
(s  b)( s  c) s  b s  c sb sc

If the zero is far from the poles, then a is large comared to b and c .
1 /( b  c) 1 /( c  b)  a
T (s)  a   
 sb s  c  ( s  b)( s  c)

Figure 4.25
Effect of adding
a zero to a
two-pole system
(1  j 2.828)
 ( s  a)C ( s )  sC ( s)  aC ( s )

Figure 4.26
Step response of a nonminimum-phase system
 Time Domain Solution of State Equations

x (t )  Ax(t )  Bu (t )
t
 x(t )  e x(0)   e A(t  ) Bu ( )d
At
0
t
  (t ) x(0)    (t   ) Bu ( )d
0

where (t )  e At is called the state-transition matrix.

L[ x(t )]  L[(t ) x(0)]  (sI  A) 1 x(0)

 L-1 [( sI  A) 1 ]  (t )